History of wars at sea from ancient times to the end of the 19th century Alfred Stenzel
Wars in South America 1864-1870
Spain never recognized the independence of Peru and when some disagreements arose in 1864, she decided on April 14 to occupy the Chinga Islands with their rich guano deposits with her Pacific squadron, under the command of Admiral Pinzón. The general indignation caused by this in America and Europe forced Spain to replace this admiral with Admiral Pareia.
Peru began to prepare for war; There was serious unrest in the country. Finally, Peru broke off the long-drawn-out negotiations and, together with Chile, Ecuador and Bolivia, which had joined it, declared war on Spain at the beginning of 1866.
At the end of November, after a battle off Valparaiso, a Chilean corvette took a Spanish gunboat belonging to the blockading squadron.
Admiral Pareya committed suicide because of this. His successor, Mendez Nunez, took up the blockade more energetically, which mainly affected the trade of neutral states.
He announced that he would bombard Valparaiso on March 31 if Spain's proposals were not accepted by then. The bombing lasted three hours and was carried out mainly on public buildings; Most of the city was destroyed and fires started in many places. The loss caused by the destruction of various goods exceeded 40 million francs.
Two weeks later, Nunez lifted the blockade and went north, without coming to any agreement with the enemy.
On May 2, he bombarded Callao in a similar way and attacked with his 7 frigates and 4 small ships the fortifications of the city, consisting of 9 batteries with 51 guns, but his ships suffered major accidents and serious losses. The Spaniards lost 300 people, the Peruvians - 1,000. After this, Nunez, wounded eight times, returned with his squadron to Spain.
Until now, never before has a squadron of steam ships suffered such a defeat in a battle with coastal forts.
Only at the beginning of 1869 a convention was concluded, followed two years later by the conclusion of peace. The Chinga Islands were returned after paying 3 million pesetas.
The desire of the dictator of Paraguay, Lopez, to expand his rule involved him in serious misunderstandings with neighboring states - Brazil and Argentina, which Uruguay also joined.
The dictator had a well-organized army of 60,000 people, which, however, due to the peculiarities of the country and the lack of roads, could only move along waterways. For this purpose there was a flotilla of 21 armed steamships and the required number of barges. The first were low-sided cargo ships, the last were ferries armed with one cannon.
In 1865, the first clash took place on the Riachuelo River, a tributary of the Paraná. 9 Paraguayan steamships with 6 "chatas" (ferries) went down the river, carrying 30 guns and 1000 people.
Nine Brazilian steamers with 60 guns and 2,300 men were anchored on the opposite shore.
Approaching them, the Paraguayan steamers turned against the current, and the Brazilians weighed anchor and a fierce battle immediately began.
The Brazilians managed to land several successful ramming attacks; then single battles between ships and with coastal fortifications began.
The Paraguayans repeatedly boarded enemy ships, but then each time their crew disappeared into the deck, and neighboring ships swept away those boarding from the upper deck with their fire.
The Brazilians were victorious and only four of the enemy ships managed to escape.
This was followed by an almost three-year (1865-1868) siege of the strong fortress of Humaita, accompanied by frequent battles on the shore and on neighboring rivers, for example, actions against the fortress of Curupaiti on the Paraguay River.
In 1867, the Brazilian river fleet increased from 4 ironclads and 18 gunboats to 12 ironclads.
In 1868, it was possible to force passage past the forts and through the barriers. The Paraguayans' repeated daring attempts to board them, even from boats and against monitors, were repelled as described above.
After a series of failed attacks, the fortress had to surrender, and Paraguay was forced to make peace.
Attempts to board monitors cannot but be called bold, and the method of reflecting them is very original.
A dispute arose between Chile and Bolivia over the area between Arequipa and Iquique, rich in ore and deposits of saltpeter and guano. After Chile unceremoniously occupied Antofagasta in February 1879, Peru had to intervene in the matter due to competition in the production of saltpeter.
The Peruvian fleet consisted of two small ironclads, two old monitors and two corvettes; Chile had: 2 medium-sized battleships, 2 corvettes and 4 older ships. Chilean ships immediately destroyed all transport ships in the southern Peruvian ports that could be used to transport troops, and blockaded Ikvikwe.
During reconnaissance towards Callao, the Chilean admiral Rebolledo did not show the necessary energy and initiative, which was completely unforgivable, since the Peruvian fleet was not yet ready to leave.
Rebolledo loaded coal and stood calmly in place, instead of attacking Callao and destroying the Peruvian transports. The Peruvians cleverly took advantage of his inactivity, sent troops south and appeared on May 21 in front of Ikvikwe, unexpectedly for the Chileans.
The Peruvian monitor Huascar sank one of the Chilean corvettes, striking it three times. Another Peruvian ironclad ran aground and died. The Chilean troops, however, could not travel north by sea and remained in place in complete inaction.
"Huascar" successfully withstood the battle with the large English cruisers "Shah" and "Amethyst" in 1877 during the mutiny of its crew.
The Chilean fleet assembled in early October.
On October 9, the Huascar was captured by the Chilean armored corvettes Amirante Cochrane (8 guns) and Blanco Encolado after the battle off Cape Angmos. The commander of the Huascar, Admiral Grau, who was ordered to preserve the ship at all costs, fell in this battle.
Now the sea was again free for the Chileans and subsequently served as their only base. They now occupied several southern cities, landed south of Callao, defeated the Peruvians at Chorillos Mirfalores and occupied Lima.
According to the peace concluded in 1882, Chile received Peruvian territory as far as Arica, and in addition, the entire coast of Bolivia.
This war, again, can serve as a good example of the fact that under special military-geographical conditions, only possession of the sea can lead to the goal, to victory on land.
If Grau had strictly adhered to his instructions not to allow the loss of his ship, then it was impossible to foresee how long the sea route would have remained closed to the Chileans.
One small battleship managed to delay strategic operations on the shore for a long time. Both sides were clearly aware of the full significance of supremacy at sea and acted accordingly.
Under similar circumstances, the struggle of the Chilean opposition against President Balmaceda broke out in 1891.
At the beginning of January, the Chilean fleet went over to the opposition, which had nothing before, and this fact, in fact, predetermined all further events.
The opposition managed, with the help of the fleet and its adherents who fled on commercial ships, to occupy Ikvikwe; its rich saltpeter deposits gave them great means of warfare. A small army was also formed there, mainly from workers in the saltpeter deposits. The commander-in-chief was Colonel Canto, and the instructor and chief of staff was Colonel Kerner of the German service, a teacher at the military school in Santiago.
The opposition fleet consisted of four large ships, including a new armored cruiser. Balmaceda was left with two destroyers newly arrived from Europe under the command of Captain Fuentes. These destroyers managed to blow up the battleship Blanco Encalado during a night attack in Caldera harbor. This case can perhaps be considered the first successful attack of a modern destroyer.
The first mine was actually fired in the same places from the cruiser "Shah" in 1877 at the "Huascar", but without success.
Balmaceda gathered his troops north of Valparaiso. Thanks to feints and command of the sea, the opposition managed to surprise the enemy by landing 10,000 well-trained troops from 24 transports at Quinteros, north of Valparaiso. They brilliantly defeated their enemy in two battles and occupied Valparaiso, after which the opposing party yielded.
The foreign colony in Valparaiso was guarded during these critical days by a German cruiser squadron (1 large and 2 small corvettes) under the command of Rear Admiral Valois, which was hastily called from China and landed a landing force of 350 people together with the British.
Only supremacy at sea gave the opposition, which started from literally nothing, such brilliant success after a few months. From the very beginning, she correctly assessed the unique military-geographical position of the country and acted quite expediently, based on the peculiarities of the existing situation.
They did not scatter their forces anywhere in vain, which with one successfully delivered blow broke the enemy’s resistance within several days.
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Wars in South America 1864-1870
Spain never recognized the independence of Peru and when some disagreements arose in 1864, she decided on April 14 to occupy the Chinga Islands with their rich guano deposits with her Pacific squadron, under the command of Admiral Pinzón. The general indignation caused by this in America and Europe forced Spain to replace this admiral with Admiral Pareia.
Peru began to prepare for war; There was serious unrest in the country. Finally, Peru broke off the long-drawn-out negotiations and, together with Chile, Ecuador and Bolivia, which had joined it, declared war on Spain at the beginning of 1866.
At the end of November, after a battle off Valparaiso, a Chilean corvette took a Spanish gunboat belonging to the blockading squadron.
Admiral Pareya committed suicide because of this. His successor, Mendez Nunez, took up the blockade more energetically, which mainly affected the trade of neutral states.
He announced that he would bombard Valparaiso on March 31 if Spain's proposals were not accepted by then. The bombing lasted three hours and was carried out mainly on public buildings; Most of the city was destroyed and fires started in many places. The loss caused by the destruction of various goods exceeded 40 million francs.
Two weeks later, Nunez lifted the blockade and went north, without coming to any agreement with the enemy.
On May 2, he bombarded Callao in a similar way and attacked with his 7 frigates and 4 small ships the fortifications of the city, consisting of 9 batteries with 51 guns, but his ships suffered major accidents and serious losses. The Spaniards lost 300 people, the Peruvians - 1,000. After this, Nunez, wounded eight times, returned with his squadron to Spain.
Until now, never before has a squadron of steam ships suffered such a defeat in a battle with coastal forts.
Only at the beginning of 1869 a convention was concluded, followed two years later by the conclusion of peace. The Chinga Islands were returned after paying 3 million pesetas.
The desire of the dictator of Paraguay, Lopez, to expand his rule involved him in serious misunderstandings with neighboring states - Brazil and Argentina, which Uruguay also joined.
The dictator had a well-organized army of 60,000 people, which, however, due to the peculiarities of the country and the lack of roads, could only move along waterways. For this purpose there was a flotilla of 21 armed steamships and the required number of barges. The first were low-sided cargo ships, the last were ferries armed with one cannon.
In 1865, the first clash took place on the Riachuelo River, a tributary of the Paraná. 9 Paraguayan steamships with 6 "chatas" (ferries) went down the river, carrying 30 guns and 1000 people.
Nine Brazilian steamers with 60 guns and 2,300 men were anchored on the opposite shore.
Approaching them, the Paraguayan steamers turned against the current, and the Brazilians weighed anchor and a fierce battle immediately began.
The Brazilians managed to land several successful ramming attacks; then single battles between ships and with coastal fortifications began.
The Paraguayans repeatedly boarded enemy ships, but then each time their crew disappeared into the deck, and neighboring ships swept away those boarding from the upper deck with their fire.
The Brazilians were victorious and only four of the enemy ships managed to escape.
This was followed by an almost three-year (1865-1868) siege of the strong fortress of Humaita, accompanied by frequent battles on the shore and on neighboring rivers, for example, actions against the fortress of Curupaiti on the Paraguay River.
In 1867, the Brazilian river fleet increased from 4 ironclads and 18 gunboats to 12 ironclads.
In 1868, it was possible to force passage past the forts and through the barriers. The Paraguayans' repeated daring attempts to board them, even from boats and against monitors, were repelled as described above.
After a series of failed attacks, the fortress had to surrender, and Paraguay was forced to make peace.
Attempts to board monitors cannot but be called bold, and the method of reflecting them is very original.
A dispute arose between Chile and Bolivia over the area between Arequipa and Iquique, rich in ore and deposits of saltpeter and guano. After Chile unceremoniously occupied Antofagasta in February 1879, Peru had to intervene in the matter due to competition in the production of saltpeter.
The Peruvian fleet consisted of two small ironclads, two old monitors and two corvettes; Chile had: 2 medium-sized battleships, 2 corvettes and 4 older ships. Chilean ships immediately destroyed all transport ships in the southern Peruvian ports that could be used to transport troops, and blockaded Ikvikwe.
During reconnaissance towards Callao, the Chilean admiral Rebolledo did not show the necessary energy and initiative, which was completely unforgivable, since the Peruvian fleet was not yet ready to leave.
Rebolledo loaded coal and stood calmly in place, instead of attacking Callao and destroying the Peruvian transports. The Peruvians cleverly took advantage of his inactivity, sent troops south and appeared on May 21 in front of Ikvikwe, unexpectedly for the Chileans.
The Peruvian monitor Huascar sank one of the Chilean corvettes, striking it three times. Another Peruvian ironclad ran aground and died. The Chilean troops, however, could not travel north by sea and remained in place in complete inaction.
"Huascar" successfully withstood the battle with the large English cruisers "Shah" and "Amethyst" in 1877 during the mutiny of its crew.
The Chilean fleet assembled in early October.
On October 9, the Huascar was captured by the Chilean armored corvettes Amirante Cochrane (8 guns) and Blanco Encolado after the battle off Cape Angmos. The commander of the Huascar, Admiral Grau, who was ordered to preserve the ship at all costs, fell in this battle.
Now the sea was again free for the Chileans and subsequently served as their only base. They now occupied several southern cities, landed south of Callao, defeated the Peruvians at Chorillos Mirfalores and occupied Lima.
According to the peace concluded in 1882, Chile received Peruvian territory as far as Arica, and in addition, the entire coast of Bolivia.
This war, again, can serve as a good example of the fact that under special military-geographical conditions, only possession of the sea can lead to the goal, to victory on land.
If Grau had strictly adhered to his instructions not to allow the loss of his ship, then it was impossible to foresee how long the sea route would have remained closed to the Chileans.
One small battleship managed to delay strategic operations on the shore for a long time. Both sides were clearly aware of the full significance of supremacy at sea and acted accordingly.
Under similar circumstances, the struggle of the Chilean opposition against President Balmaceda broke out in 1891.
At the beginning of January, the Chilean fleet went over to the opposition, which had nothing before, and this fact, in fact, predetermined all further events.
The opposition managed, with the help of the fleet and its adherents who fled on commercial ships, to occupy Ikvikwe; its rich saltpeter deposits gave them great means of warfare. A small army was also formed there, mainly from workers in the saltpeter deposits. The commander-in-chief was Colonel Canto, and the instructor and chief of staff was Colonel Kerner of the German service, a teacher at the military school in Santiago.
The opposition fleet consisted of four large ships, including a new armored cruiser. Balmaceda was left with two destroyers newly arrived from Europe under the command of Captain Fuentes. These destroyers managed to blow up the battleship Blanco Encalado during a night attack in Caldera harbor. This case can perhaps be considered the first successful attack of a modern destroyer.
The first mine was actually fired in the same places from the cruiser "Shah" in 1877 at the "Huascar", but without success.
Balmaceda gathered his troops north of Valparaiso. Thanks to feints and command of the sea, the opposition managed to surprise the enemy by landing 10,000 well-trained troops from 24 transports at Quinteros, north of Valparaiso. They brilliantly defeated their enemy in two battles and occupied Valparaiso, after which the opposing party yielded.
The foreign colony in Valparaiso was guarded during these critical days by a German cruiser squadron (1 large and 2 small corvettes) under the command of Rear Admiral Valois, which was hastily called from China and landed a landing force of 350 people together with the British.
Only supremacy at sea gave the opposition, which started from literally nothing, such brilliant success after a few months. From the very beginning, she correctly assessed the unique military-geographical position of the country and acted quite expediently, based on the peculiarities of the existing situation.
They did not scatter their forces anywhere in vain, which with one successfully delivered blow broke the enemy’s resistance within several days.
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ch 1864 Z. VEUYOUFCHB RETHBOGECH RP PFOPYEOYA L OEULPMSHLYN VBULBN, YURBOULYN RPDDBOOSCHN, UB LPFPTSCHNY OE RPUMEDPCHBMP UPPFCHEFUFCHHAEYI YJCHYOEOYK, RPVHDYMP YURBOY A PFRTBCHYFSH ULBDTH RTPPHYCH rETKH. h LFK ULBDTE UBNSHCHN ZTPЪOSCHN VSHM VTPOEOPUEG "ohNBOOUYS", VBFBTEKOSHCHK LPTBVMSH CH 7300 F, ЪBEEEOOOSCHK 5.5-Y 4-DAKNPCHPK VTPOEK Y ChPPTKhTSEOOSCHK UPTPLB 68-ZHKhO FPCHSHCHNY PTHDISNY. according to VSHM RPUFTPEO CH MB-UEKOE, Y ULPTPUFSH EZP VSHMB FPMSHLP 10 KHMCH. CHNEUFE U OIN YNEMYUSH OEVTPOEOPUOSCH "CHYMSHS DE nBDTYD" (56 PTHDYK), "TEPMAUSHPO" (23 PTHDYS), "vMBOLB" (38 PTHDYK), "bMSHNBOUB" (52 PTHDYS), "VETEOSEMB" (36 PTHDY K), "chYOUEDPTTB" (3 PTHDYS) Y “lPCHBDPOZB” (3 PTHDYS). chPPTHTSEOYE LFYI LPTBVMEK VSHMP CHUSHNB UMBVSHCHN, FBL LBL YUFPSCHYI ABOUT OYI VPMEE 250 PTHDYK MYYSH OENOPZIE VSHMY OBTEOSCHNY, B VPMSHYOUFChP FPMSHLP 8-Y 6-DAKNP CHCHNY ZMBDLPUFCHPMSHOSCHNY RHYLBNY, UFTEMCHYNY 68–Y 32-ZHHOFPCHSHNY SDTTBNY.
rTYVSCCH L VETEZBN RTH, BDNYTBM rYOUPO, YURBOULYK LPNBODHAEIK, URPLLPKOP ЪБЧМБДЭМ ЪБМЦБНИ ЗХБОП ABOUT PUFTPCBI JOYUB Y UFBM CHSCYDBFSH, LPZDB RPFETS LFPPZ YUFPYUOILB DPIPDPCH PVTBHNYF ACOPBNETILBOULHA TEURHVMYLH. ch 1866 Z. rYOUPO VSHM ЪBNEOEO BDNYTBMPN rBTEIB, LPFPTSCHK TEYM RTYOSFSH VPMEE TEYYFEMSHOSHE NETSCH. fBL LBL TEURKHVMYLB YUMY RTPSCHYMB DTHTSEUFCHEOOPE PFOPYEOYE L RETKH Y CHTBTSDEVOPE L YURBOYY, FP YURBOULYK BDNYTBM OBRTBCHYMUS L AZKH, L chBMSHRBTBYUP, Y VMPLYTPCHBM LFPF RPTF U YEUFSHA LPTBVMSNY, PUFBCHYCH DCHB DMS PITBOSHCH PUFTPPCHPCH YuYUB. YuYMYKGSH PVMBDBMY NBMEOSHLYN ZHMFPPN Y NPZMY RTPFPYCHPDEKUFCHPCHBFSH YURBOY FPMSHLP CHSHCHDBYEK LBRETULYI UCHYDEFEMSHUFCH. pDOBLP 26 OPSVTS 1865 Z. PFNEYUEOP YI OUUPNOOOOSCHN KHUREIPN ЪBICHBFPN YURBOULPK LBOPOETULPK MPDLY "lPCBDPOZB". POB YMB L BDNYTBMH RBTEIE U DEREYBNYI ChBTSOSHCHNY VHNBZBNY, LPZDB KH lPLIVNP CHUFTEFYMB YUMYKULYK CHPEOOSHCHK LPTBVMSH "YUNETBMSHDB". rPDOSCH BOZMYKULYK ZHMBZ, YUMYKULYK LPTBVMSH UNPZ RTYVMYYFSHUS L OERTYSFEMA Y PFLTSCHM RP OENH PZPOSH. “UUNETBMSHDB” VSHMB OBNOPZP UIMSHOEEE, FBL LBL LILRBTS EE UPUFPSM YЪ 123 PZHYGETPCH Y NBFTPUPC, B CHPPTHTSEOYE YЪ CHPUENOBDGBFY 32–Y 24-JHOFPCHSHI ZMBDLPUFCHPM SHOSHI RKHYEL, FPZDB LBL ABOUT "LPCBDPOSE" LYRBTS UPUFPSM JЪ 121 YUEMPCHELB, B CHPPTHTSEOYE YЪ DCHHI RPCHPTPFOSHI 68-ZHHOFPCHSHI ZMBDLPUFCHPMSHOSCHY PDOPK 32-ZHHOFPCHPK RHYLY. UFTEMSHVB "UNETBMSHDSCH" RTPYCHPDYMYUSH KHCHETEOOP Y U BNEYUBFEMSHOPK FPYUOPUFSHA. h OBYUBME UTBTSEOYS YNY HCE VSHMP UVYFP PDOP YJ FTEI OERTYSFEMSHULYI PTHDYK. yuete 20 NYOHF YURBOGSHCH, DBCHYYE FPMSHLP FTY CHSHCHUFTEMB, PLPOYUBFEMSHOP DENPTBMYPCHBOOSCH VSHUFTPFPK DEKUFCHYK YUMYKGECH Y FPYUOPUFSHA YI CHSHCHUFTEMPCH, URKHUFYMY ZHMBZ. sing RPFETSMY DCHHI YUEMPCHEL HVYFSHCHNYY 14 TBOEOSCHNY, FPZDB LBL ABOUT “YUNETBMSHDE” OH PDYO YuEMPCHEL OE VSHM ЪBDEF. YURBOGSH DBTSE OE RPBBVPFYMYUSH CHSCVTPUIFSH UB VPTF UCHPA UYZOBMSHOHA LOYZKH Y DEREYY, LPFPTSHCHE RPRBMY CH THLY YUYMYKGECH.
bFB OEKHDBYUB, RPUMEDPCHBCHYBS UB ЪBICHBFPN 14 OPSVTS YUMYKGBNY CHPPTHTSEOOPZP VBTLBUB, CHSHCHBMB KHNUFCHOOPE TBUUFTPKUFChP X BDNYTBMB rBTEIY. oBRTBCHMSSUSH L UECHETH CH lBMSHSP, PO PE CHTENS bFPZP RETEIPDB BUFTEMYMUS CH UCHPEK LBAFE. rTEENOILPN EZP UFBM BDNYTBM OHOSHEU, LPFPTSCHK CHCHYDH FPZP, YuFP OH YUMY, OH RETKH OE IPFEMY YDFY ABOUT UPZMBYEOYE, TEEYM RTERPDBFSH YN IPTPYYK HTPL. ON OBYUBM U VPNVBTDYTPCHLY CHBMSHRBTBYUP, IPFS LFPF ZPTPD VSHM RPMOPUFSHA PFLTSCHF DMS OBRBDEOYS Y, LTPNE OUEULPMSHLYI RKHYEL DMS UBMAFPCH, OE YNEM DTHZYI PTHDYK. h ФПН ХУБУФЧПЧБМИ “ОХНБУИС”, “ЧИМШС DE НБДТИД”, “ТЭПМАУШПО”, “ВМБОПЛБ”, “ВЭТЭОЗЭМБ”, “ЧИУЭДПТБ”. 31 NBTFB 1866 Z., ABOUT TBUUCHEF, CHUE POY, JB YULMAYUEOYEN “VETEOZEMSHCH”, LPFPTBS PUFBMBUSH CH NPTE UFPTPTSYFSH ЪBICHBUEOOSCH YURBOGBNY UKHDB, ChPYMY CH VHIFKH chBMSHRBTB YUP. h CHPUENSH YUBUPCH DCHB IMPUFSHCHI CHSHCHUFTEMB U "ohNBOUIY" DBMY OBFSH YUYMYKGBN, YuFP YI PTSIDBEF. h DECHSFSH YUBUPCH YURBOGSH PFLTSCHMY PZPOSH. zPTPD VShchM RPLYOKHF YUYMYKGBNY, FBL YuFP DBCE Y UFBTSHCHE RHYLY OE VSHMY RHEEOSHCH IPD. oEULPMSHLP YUMYKULYI ZHMBZPCH CHUE-FBLY TBCHECHBMYUSH, LBL VSC RTPCHPGYTHS YURBOGECH. “CHYMSHS DE nBDTYD” Y “vMBOLB” VPNVBTDYTPCHBMY FBNPTSOA ABOUT EBRD PF EBMYCHB; “chYOUEDPTB” UFTEMSMB RP ЪDBOYA YOFEODBOFUFCHB, B “tePMAUSHPO”, ABOUT CHPUFPLE, RBMYMB CH YEHYFULHA LPMMEZYA. h GEOFTE ЪБМІЧБ УФПСМБ "оХНБOUYS", OE RTYOINBS HYBUFYS CH DEKUFCHYSI. h TBЪZBT VPNVBTDYTPCHLY “TEPMAUSHPO” Y “vMBOLB” RPNEOSMYUSH NEUFBNY. UFTEMSHVB U FPYULY UTEOYS NEFLPUFY VSHMB RMPIPK. sDTB YOPZDB RBDBMY PLPMP VPTFPCH UBNYI LPTBVMEK, YOPZDB TSE RETEMEFBMY YUETE ZPTPD CH ZPTSH, ZDE Y KHVYCHBMY VEPTTHTSOSHI, VEURPNPEOSHCHI NHTSYUYO Y TsEOEYO. OH ABOUT PDYO CHSHCHUFTEM OE RPUMEDPCHBMP PFCHEFB. h RPMPCHYOE DCHEOBDGBFPZP ЪBZPTEMPUSH ЪDBOYE FBNPTSOY, Y HCE YUBUFSH ZPTPDB RSHMBMB, LPZDB RPUMEDPCHBM UYZOBM P RTELTBEEOY UFTEMSHVSHCH. dMS DPUFYTSEOYS LFPZP TEKHMSHFBFB VSHMP UDEMBOP PF 2000 DP 3000 CHSCHUFTEMPCH, Y X YURBOGECH HCE PUFBCHBMPUSH OEDPUFBFPYUOPE LPMYUUEUFChP UOBTSDPCH. rPCBT KHOYUFPTSYM FPCHBTSHCH ABOUT 2,000,000 ZHHOFPCH UFETMYOZPCH, OP, ЪB YULMAYUEOYEN LFYI KHVSHCHFLPCH, VPNVBTDYTPCHLB OE YNEMB OILBLYI RPUMEDUFCHYK. chNEUFP FPZP YUFPVSH ЪBUFBCHYFSH YUMYKGECH RPLPTYFSHUS, POB, OBRTPFYCH FPZP, KHYYMYMB YI TEYYNPUFSH UPRTPFYCHMSFSHUS YURBOYY, Y VEYUYMSHOPZP DEUBOFB YURBOULYK ZHMPF OE VSHM CH UPUFPSOY RTYUYOYFSH VPMSHYYK CHTED. fTHDOP CHURPNOYFSH VE OZPDPCHBOYS PV LFPN VEURPMENOPN Y VEUGEMSHOPN RPZTPNE VEJBEIFOPZP ZPTPDB, IPFS RPDPVOSHCHYS NPZHF UYYFBFSHUS YDEBMPN OELPFPTSHHI UFTBFE HRA.
uMEDHAEIK RPIPD BDNYTBM oHOSHEU RTEDRTYOSM RTPFYCH HLTERMEOOOPZP ZPTPDB. 27 BRTEMS 1866 Z. BY RPSCHYMUS X lBMSHSP, ZDE UDEMBM ЪBSCHMEOYE P FPN, YuFP RPTF VMPLYTPCHBO, Y, LTPNE FPZP, RPUMBM RTEDHRTETSDEOYE, YuFP YuETE YuEFSHTE DOS OBYUOEFUS VPNVBTDYTP CHLB. chUMEDUFCHYE LFPP OEKFTBMSHOSCH MYGB RPUREYOP RPLYOHMY ZPTPD, OP OBRBDEOYS OE RPUMEDPCHBMP TBOEE 2 NBS. lBMSHSP CH FP CHTENS VSHM UYMSHOP KHLTERMEO, EZP VBFBTEY TBURPMBZBMYUSH DCHHNS ZTHRRBNY, UECHETOPK Y ATsOPK. About Oyi Distude PF 40 DP 50 ZMBDLPUFCHPMSHESHR RHYLEL, VPMSHYUOUFCHP Yu LPFPTSHY VSHMY 34th 24th 24-Zhofpcheshche, Y-DPVBPPL, EEE YNOMPUSH DECHSFSH Pyomemshchi PTHDIK. yЪ OYI YUEFSHTE VSHMY BTNUFTPOZPCHULINY 300-ZHHOFPCHSHCHNY OBTEOSHCHNY, RPUFBCHMEOOSHCHNY CH DCHHI VBYOSI ЪB 10-DAKNPCHPK VTPOEK, RP DCHB CH LBTSDPK VBUOE, B RSFSH VMLHPMULY NY 450-ZHHOFPCHSHNY OBTEOSHCHNY PTHDYSNY. Chue PTHDYS, ЪB YULMAYUEOYEN YUEFSHTEI BTNUFTPOZPCHULYI, VSHMY VBTVEFOPK KHUFBOPCHLY. HLTERMEOYS UPUFPSMY YYNEYLPCH U ENMEK, LBNEOOPK LMBDLY YMY YJ BDPVSHCH, F. E. OEPVPTSCEOOOPZP LITRYUB.
ch 10 YUBUPCH KhFTB LPTBVMY OBYUBMY CHIPDYFSH CH ZBCHBOSH, OP DPMZPE CHTENS OE NPZMY RETEUFTPIFSHUS CH DCHB PFTSDB. RETCHSHCHK YЪ OYI, UPUFPSCHYYK YЪ “ohNBOUYY”, “vMBOLY” Y “TEPMAUSHPO”, DPMTSEO VSHM BFBLPCHBFSH ATSOSCHE VBFBTEY; CHFPTPK, CH UPUFBCHE "CHYMSHS DE nBDTYD", "VETEOZEMSHCH" Y "bMSHNBOUSHCH", UECHETOSCHE KHLTERMEOYS, B "chYOUEDPTB" DPMTSOB VSHMB UFTEMSFSH RP RETHBOULINE LPTBVMSN "chYLFPTYB" Y "mPB". RETCHSHCHK YЪ OYI VSHM NBMEOSHLIN NPOYFPTPN U PDOYN 64-ZHHOFPCHSHCHN PTHDYEN, CHFPTPK TSE "NETTYNBLLPN" CH NYOBFATE, ЪBEEYEEO TEMSHUPCHCHN TSEMEPPN Y YNEM DCHB 68-ZHKHO FPCHSCHI PTHDIS. “chYOUEDPTE” FBLCE RTEDRYUSCHBMPUSH VSCHFSH ZPFPCHPK CH UMHYUBE OBDPVOPUFY VHLUTPCHBFSH RPCHTETSDEOOOSCH LPTBVMY. pLPMP 11 YUBUPCH PVB PFTSDB NEDMEOOOP RPDIPDYMY L ZPTPDH, HULPTSS IPD RP NETE RTYVMYTSEOYS L HLTERMEOYSN. h 12:15, RPPDKDS ABOUT TBUUFPSOYE 1500 STDPC PF RETHBOULYI VBFBTEK, “ohNBOUIS” DBMB RETCHSCHK CHSHCHUFTEM. at VETEZPCHSHCHI KHLTERMEOYK OENEDMEOOOP RPUMEDPCHBM PFCHEFOSCHK ЪBMR, Y PUFBMSHOSHE LPTBVMY ULBDTSCH FPTSE CHUFKHRYMY CH VPK. pLPMP YUBUB DOS "CHYMMSHS DE nBDTYD" PLBЪBMUS CH ЪBFTKHDOYFEMSHOPN RPMPTSEOYY. according to RPUFBCHYM RBTHUB Y RPDBM UYZOBM, YuFP FETRYF VEDUFCHYE; CHUMEDUFCHYE YUESP VSHM PFVHLUITPCHBO "chYOUEDPTPK". sDTPN RTPVIMP EZP RBTPCHHA FTHVH, PVCHBTYCH DP UNETFY 13 YUEMPCHEL. rPYUFY CH FP TSE UBNPE CHTENS 450-ZHHOFPCHBS ZTBOBFB YЪ VMLHPMULPZP PTHDYS RPRBMB CH CHBFETMYOYA “VETEOZEMSHCH” Y, TBPTCHBCHYUSH, UDEMBMB RTPVPYOH CH 20 LCHBDTBFOSCHI ZH FPF. lPTBVMSH UIMSHOP OBLTEOMUS, Y OBD OIN RPDOSMPUSH PVMBLP RBTB, LBL VSHCH KHLBSHCHBS ABOUT FP, YuFP YuBUFSH ZTBOBFSH RTPVIMB EZP OBULCHPSH, RTPKDS KHZPMSHOKHA SNKH.
lBBBMPUSH, YuFP PO FPOEF, Y, LBL LFP VSHMP CHYDOP U BOZMYKULYI Y BNETYLBOULYI UHDPC, LPNBODB EZP CHSHBLBUYCHBMB CHPDKH Y UFBTBMBUSH ЪBDEMBFSH RTPVPYOH. EHH HDBMPUSH, OBLPOEG, CHSHKFY UB RTEDEMSH RPMEFB UOBTSDPCH.
rPFETCH DCHHI UCHPYI UPFPCHBTYEEK, "bMSHNBOUB" RTYUPEDYOMBUSH L ATSOPNH PFTSDKH. pLPMP 14:30 ABOUT “vMBOLE” Y “TEPMAUSHPO” YUFPEYMUS ЪBRBU UOBTSDPCH, Y SING PFUFKHRYMY, PUFBCHYCH “OKHNBOUYA” Y “BMSHNBOUKH” PDOYI RETED VBFBTESNY. ABOUT "vMBOLE" DCHBTDSCH RTPYUIPDYM RPTsBT CH TBKPOE LTAKF-LBNETSH. h 16:30 Y RPUMEDOYE DHB LPTBVMS RTELTBFYMY RBMSHVH Y PFUFHRYMY, B RETHBOGSH UFTEMSMY RP OIN DP FAIRIES RPT, RPLB SING OBIPDIMYUSH ABOUT TBUUFPSOY CHSHCHUFTEMB. h "OKHNBOUYA" OEULPMSHLP TB RPRBDBMY 32-ZHHOFPPCHSHCHE SDTB, OP POY, LPOYUOP, PLBYSCHBMYUSH UPCHETYOOOP VEUUYMSHOSH RTPPFYCH EZP VTPOY. pDOYN 300-ZHHOFPCHSHCHN UOBTSDPN VSHMB RTPVYFB VTPOS, RTYUEN PVTBЪPCHBMBUSH RTPVPYOB CH DCHB DAKNB, PDOBLP UOBTSD OE RTPYYEM YUETE PVIYCHLH. dTKHZBS ZTBOBFB, TBPTCHBCHYYUSH PLPMP NPUFILB OB UENSH PULPMLPCH, RPRBMB CH BDNYTBMB OHOSHEUB, OP OE RTYUYOYMB ENKH UETSHESCHI MSW. RPFETY YURBOGECH KHVYFSHCHNYY TBOEOSCHNY FPYuOP OE YCHEUFOSH. h FP CHTENS RTEDRPMBZBMY, YuFP YUYUMP YI VSHMP PLPMP 200 YUEMPCHEL. RETKHBOGSH RPUFTBDBMY OEULPMSHLP VPMSHYE, FBL LBL YUYUMP HVYFSHCHIY TBOESCHY KHOYI VSHMP 300, OP NOPZIE YJ LFPZP YUYUMB RBMY TSETFCHPK OYUYUBUFOPZP UMKHYUBS CH ZHTFCH MB-NET FOOD. FHF OBIPDIMBUSH VBYOS U DCHHNS 300-ZHHOFPCHSHNY BTNUFTPOZPCHULYNY PTKHDYSNY, Y CH LFPC VBYOE OBIPDIYMUS CHPEOOSHCHK NYOYUFT RTH U OEULPMSHLYNY PZHYGETBNY, OBVMADBS ЪB DEKUF CHYSNY PTHDYKOPK RTYUMKHZY LFYI DCHHI RKHYEL. pDOB YJ ZTBOBF VSHCHMB HCE RPMPTSEOB CH UFTPRLH Y RPDOSFB L DHMH PDOPZP YJ PTHDYK, LBL CHDTHZ U OEE UPTCHBMBUSH, KHRBMB OB YENMA Y, TBPTCHBCHYYUSH, CHPURMBNEOYMB NBUUKH R PTPIB CH VBYOE. zPURPDYO zBMSHCHEU, CHPEOOSHCHK NYOYUFT, Y 20 YUEMPCHEL LPNBODSCH VSHMY HVYFSH YMY FSTSEMP TBOEOSCH. oh LPTBVMY, OH ZHTFSCH OE RPUFTBDBMY PUPVEOOOP PF PVPADOPK LBOPOBDSCH, OP ABOUT ZHPTFBI DCHB FSTSEMSHI PTKHDYS VSHMY RPCHTETSDEOSCH, UMEFECH UP UFBOLPCH CHUMEDUFCHYE FPZP, YuFP LPNRTEUUPTSCH OE VSHMY DPUFBFPYUOP OBTSBFSCH.
YURBOGSHCH, RPFETRECHYE OEKHDBYUKH, RPUME LFPPZP KHDBMYMYUSH YJ fYIPZP PLEBOB, YNES OOBYUYFEMSHOSH OBRBUSCH RTPCHYYY UOBTSDPCH. iPFS SING Y YNEMY CHNPTSOPUFSH VBYTPCHBOYS ABOUT PUFTPCBI JOYUB, OP FBN OE VSHMP OILBLYI RTYURPUPVMEOYK DMS TENPOFB LPTBVMEK, B NOPZIE VSHCHMY RPCCHTETSDEOSCH. OYUFPTSOSCH TEKHMSHFBFSCH OBRBDEOYK ABOUT LBMSHSSP Y chBMSHRBTBYUP SUOP RPDFCHETTSDBAF RTBCHYMP, YuFP NBMEOSHLBS ULBDTB OE NPTsEF ЪBUFBCHYFSH ZPUKHDBTUFCHB RPLPTYFSHUS, OP NPTSEF FPMSHLP OBOEUFY READING. yuYUMP LPTBVMEK OE VSHMP DPUFBFPYuOP DMS FPZP, YuFPVSH ZBLFYUEULY VMPLYTPCHBFSH VETEZB, OE VSHMP FBLCE Y DEUBOFB.
h FP CHTENS LBL LFY UPVSHCHFYS RTPYUIPDYMY ABOUT VETEZKH fYIPZP PLEBOB, PTSEUFPYUEOOBS VPTSHVB TBCHETOHMBUSH CH GEOFTE ATsOPK bNETYLY, CH LPFPTPK, LBL OH UFTBOOP, LPTBVMY YZTBMY CHEUSHNB OBYUYFEMSHOKHA TPMSH. yЪ vTBYMYYY TELB rBTBOB FEYUEF NETSDH TEURHVMYLPK rBTBZCHBK Y FETTYFPTYEK bTZEOFYOULPZP UPAЪB DP CHRBDEOOYS CH ЪБМИЧ MB-rMBFB. POB UKhDPIPDOB (DMS UKhDHR U OEVPMSHYPK PUBDLPK) DBMELP CH ZMHVSH vTBYMYY Y RTYOINBEF CH UEVS NBUUKH RTYFPLPCH, YJ LPFPTSCHI TELB rBTBZCHBK FBLCE UKDPIPDOB. rP VETEZBN Y CHPDBI LFYI DCHHI TEL RTPYUIPDYMB LTPCHPRTPMYFOBS CHPKOB NETSDH rBTBZCHBEN, U PDOPC UFPTPOSCH, Y vTBYMYEK, BTZEOFYOULIN UPAIPN Y xTKHZCHBEN U DTHZ PC.
ch 1864 Z. NBTYBM mPREU, UCHYTERSHCHK Y VEUUEMPCHYUOSCHK FYTBO rBTBZCHBS, CHSHCHODYM UCHPYI UPUEDEK PVASCHIFSH ENKH CHPKOKH Y ЪBLMAYUYFSH FTPKUFCHEOOSCHK UPA, GEMSHA LPFPTPZP VSHMP KHOY YUFPTSYFSH EZP DEURPFYYN. ьFPF UFTBOOSCHK YUEMPCHEL, YUFPTYS TSYЪ OY LPFPTPZP OBRPNYOBEF, ZMBCHH YЪ TPNBOB, ЪBDKHNBM YZTBFSH CH ATsOPK bNETYLE TPMSH obRPMEPOB. according to PTZBOYPCHBM VPMSHYKHA, OP DPChPMSHOP RMPIP CHPPTHTSEOKHA BTNYA, OBRPMPCHYOH YURBOGECH, OBRPMPCHYOH YYODEKGECH. sing UTBTSBMYUSH U PDYOBLPCHSHCHN PFYUBSOYEN, RPFPNH YFP EUMY POY PFUFHRBMY YMY PVTBEBMYUSH CH VEZUFCHP, FP mPREU VETSBMPUFOP TBUUFTEMYCHBM LBTSDPZP DEUSFPZP UPMDBF B. yI RTPFPYCHOILY YNEMY ECHTPREKULPE PTHTSIE y VTPOEOPUGSHCH, OP ЪBFP PFMYUBMYUSH FTHUPUFSHY VEDBTOPUFSH. oEULPMSHLP ANPTYUFYUEO FPF ZhBLF, YuFP YUEN VPMSHYKHA FTKHUPUFSH Y OEURPUPVOPUFSH DENPOUFTYTPCHBM LPNBODYT UPAYOSHI UYM, FEN U VPMSHYEK KHCHETOOPUFSHA BY PTSYDBFSH NBUUSCH RPYUE Refinery UFEK Y RTPIYCHPDUFCHB RP UMHTSVE. vTBYMYS DBTSE DPYMB DP FPZP, YuFP PLTEUFYMB UCHPY LPTBVMY YNEOBNY MADEK, LPFPTSCHE ZBLFYUEULY PRPIPTYMY E. lBLPCSHCH VSHMY BDNYTBMSCH, FBLPCSHCH VSHMY Y NBFTPUSH. GEMSHNY OEDEMSNY ZHMPF, UPUFPSCHIYK Y VTPOEOPUGECH, VPNVBTDYTPCHBM ZhPTF, CH LPFPTPN YNEMPUSH CHUEZP PDOP PTHDYE; VTBYMSHGSCH USCHRBMY ZTBD LBTFEYUY RP CHUEN OBRTBCHMEOYSN, BUMSCHYBCH YEMEUF MYUFB CH MEUCH. sing YNEMY TEDLPUFOSHK PVSHCHOSMBUSH VEЪ TBVPTB RP UCHPYN Y RP YUKHTSYN, B LPZDB PDOBTSDSCH U OYNY RPTBCHOSMBUSH RBTBZCHBKULBS MPDLB, FP SING UPYUMY UEVS RPZYYYNYY PV TBFYMYUSH CH VEZUFCHP. vTBYMSHGSH Y BTZEOFYOGSH RPUFPSOOP YЪVYTBMY DMS UCHPYI OBRBDEOYK ABOUT RBTBZCHBKULYE RPIYGYY UBNSCHE UIMSHOSCH YI RHOLFSHCH; SING UYUYFBMY DEMPN YUEUFY OYLPZDB OE RTEUMEDPCHBFSH TBVYFPZP OERTYSFEMS, B LPZDB OB YI UFPTPOE PLBYSCHBMYUSH CHUE YBOUSCH, YuFP UMKHYUBMPUSH YUBUFP, FP NEDMYMY Y ЪE BWMY. chPKOB, LPFPTBS DPMTSOB VSHMB ЪBLPOYUYFSHUS CH RSFSH NEUSGECH, TBUFSOKHMBUSH ABOUT RSFSH MEF. fBLYN PVTBBPN DPRKHUFYMY RPMOPE TBBPTEOYE rBTBZCHBS mPREUPN.
mPREU OBYUBM CHPKOKH, ЪBICHBFYCH Ch 1864 Z. VTBYMSHULIK RBTPPIPD, OBRTBCHMSCHYKUS Ch nBFKh-zTPUKH. CHUMED ЪБ ьФИН RTPFPYCHPBLPOOSCHN RPUFHRLPN PO UBOSM ATSOKHA YUBUFSH VTBYMSHULPK RTPCHYOGYY nBFH-zTPUKH, Y EZP CHPKULB CHUFKHRYMY H BTZEOFYOULYK ZPTPD lPTSHEOF EU. by UPVTBM ULBDTH Y DECHSFY OEVPMSHYYI TEYOSCHI RBTPIPDPCH. yЪ OI “fBLKHBTY” (6 PTHDYK), “rBTBZHBTY” (4 PTHDYS), “yZKHTEY” (5 PTHDYK), “yRPTB” (4 PTHDYS), “pMYODB” (4 PTHDYS) Y “iEIHY” (2 PTHDYS) VSHMY LPMEUOSCH RBTPIPDSCH, B “ubMSHFP pTSHEOFBMSH” (4 PTHDYS), “yVETB” (4 PTHDYS) Y “rYTBVEVE” (1 PTHDYE) CHYOFPCHSHCHE. chPPTHTTSEOYE LFK ZHMPFYMYY UPUFPSMP YЪ ZMBDLPUFCHPMSHOSCHI RKHOYEL DTECHOEKYEZP PVTBGB Y PE NOPZYI UMKHYUBSI UP UCHYEBNY PF TCBCHYUOSCH. NEIBOILBNY UMHTSYMY RP VPMSHYEK YUBUFY BOZMYYUBOE, LPFPTSCHE RPPTSE VSHCHMY TBUUFTEMSOSH YMY ЪBNHYUEOSCH DP UNETFY ZPURPDYOPN, LPFPTPNH SING UMKHTSYMY, CH OBZTBDH ЪB UCHPA IT BVTPUFSH Y CHETOPUFSH. DEKUFCHYFEMSHOP, rBTBZCHBK PE CHTENS LFK CHPKOSH RTEDUFBCHMSM OBUFPSEYK DB, RPYUFY RTECHSHCHYBCHYK UCHPPYNY KHTSBUBNY OBYNTBUOEKYE ZhBOFBYY dBOFE.
vTBYMSHULYK ZHMPF CH OBYUBME 1865 Z. UPUFPSM YЪ 40 DETECHSOOSCHI RBTPIPPDCH U BTFYMMETYKULIN CHPPTHTSEOYEN RTYNETOP CH 250 PTHDYK. l OYN CH FEYUEOYE CHPKOSH VSHMP RTYUPEDYOEOP 20 OEVPMSHYI VTPOEOPUGECH. rPMPCHYOB YI VSHMY LBENBFOSHNY, CHPDPYNEEEOYEN DP 1500 F, U 4.5-DAKNPCHPK VTPOEK. LBTSDSCHK LPTBVMSH CHPPTHTSBMUS YUEFSHTSHNS 150-ZHHOFPCHSHINY YUEFSHTSHNS 68-ZHHOFPCHSHNY OBTEOSHCHNY PTHDYSNY UYUFENSCH hYFChPTFB. dTHZBS RPMPCHYOB LPTBVMEK PDOPVBYEOOOSCHY DCHHIVBYEOOSH NPOYFPTSCH, YNEAEYE PF DCHHI DP YUEFSHTEI PTHDYK. yEUFSH PDOPVBYEOOSCHI TEYOSCHI NPOYFPTPCH, LBTSDSCHK U PDOYN 7-DAKNPCHSHCHN 150-ZHHOFPCHSHCHN PTHDYEN KHYFCHPTFB CH OERPDCHYTSOPK VBYOE, ЪBLBOYUYCHBMY URYUPL ZHMPFB. BTZEOFYOULYK UPA OE YNEM OILBLLPZP ZHMPFB, LTPNE DCHHI ZOYMSCHI TEYOSHI RBTPIPDPCH.
vTBYMSHULYK ZHMPF RPLYOKHM TYP-DE-tsBOEKTP CH OBYUBME 1865 Z.Y PFRTBCHYMUS CH nPOFECHYDEP. OH EZP PZHYGETSCH, OH NBFTPUSH OE RTPSCHMSMY OILBLPZP TSEMBOYS UTBTSBFSHUS. DEKUFCHYFEMSHOP, ZMBCHOSCHN TSEMBOYEN CHUEI, OBUYOBS U LPNBODHAEEZP ZHMPFPN BDNYTBMB fBNBODBTE, VSHMP LBL NPTsOP DPMSHYE OE CHUFTEYUBFSHUS U RBTBZCHBKGBNY. rTY CHSHCHIPDE YVHOPU-bKTEUB CHUEPVEE UPUFPSOIE VSHMP CHUSHNB RPDBCHMEOOOSCHN, FBL LBL YOPUFTBOOSCH PZHYGETSH DBCE ЪBLMAYUBMY RBTY (Y VTBYMSHSH NPZMY LFP UMSHCHYBFSH), Yu FP OH MADY, OH LPTBVMY OH CHETOHFUS. ьFPF DPUFPKOSCHK ZHMPF RPFTBFYM 42 DOS ABOUT RETEIPD PF vHIOPU-bKTEUB DP RETEDPCHPK MYOYY, RTYYUEN TBUUFPSOYE NETSDH OYNY VSHMP CHUEZP OEULPMSHLP UPF NYMSH RP KHDPVOPK DMS RMBCHBOYS TELE rBTBOE. 10 YAOS BY VTPUYM SLPTSH VMY KHUFSHS TYBYKHMP, RTYFPLB rBTBOSHCH, ZDE refinery PLBBBFSHUS RPD CHSHCHUFTEMBNY RBTBZCHBKGECH. iPFS VSHMP YJCHEUFOP, YuFP OERTYSFEMSH VMYOLP, OE RTYOSMY OILBLYI NO RTEDPUFPTPTSOPUFY. VTBYMSHGSCH OE UPOBCHBMY OEPVIPDYNPUFY VSHFSH OBUFPTPTSE Y DEMBMY CHUE, YUFPVSH PLBBBFSHUS BUFYZOHFSHCHNY CHTBURMPI. rBTBZCHBKGSH KHUFBOPCHYMY OEULPMSHLP PTHDYK CH MEUKH, ZDE OERTYSFEMSH OE NPZ YI CHYDEFSH, Y RTYZPFPCHYMYUSH L OBRBDEOYA. pFTSD Y CHPUSHNY RBTPIPDPCH RPMKHYUM PF mPREUB RTYLB URKHUFYFSHUS CHOY RP TELE NYNP VTPOEOPUGECH, ЪBFEN RPCHETOHFSH Y CHSFSH YI ABOUT BVPTDBC. bFPF RMBO YULMAYUBM CHPNPTSOPUFSH CHOEBROPPZP OBRBDEOYS, OP bFP VSHMY RKHUFSLY. rP LBLPNH-FP OEDPUNPFTKH RBTBZCHBKULYE UHDB OE VSHMY UOBVTSEOSH BVPTDBTSOSHCHNY LTALBNY. 11 YAOS, TBOP KhFTPN, SING UFBMY URKHULBFSHUS CHOY RP TELE. VTBYMSHGSHCH, TBHNEEFUS, URBMY Y NPZMY VSHCH VSCHFSH BICHBUEOSHCH, OP OERPCHYOPCHEOYE mPREUKH VSHMP TBCHOPUIMSHOP UNETFY. h UYMKH LFPPZP RBTBZCHBKGSH RTPYMY NYNP, TBVKhDYCH DTENBCHYEZP OERTYSFEMS Y DBCH ENKH ChPNPTSOPUFSH RTYZPFPCHYFSHUS, ЪBFEN, RPCHETOHCH, UFBMY RPDOINBFSHUS CHCHETI RP FEYU EOYA.
vTBYMSHGSH YNEMY DECHSFSH LPTBVMEK U PWAYN YUYUMPN PTHDYK 59: “bNBPOBU” (RPD ZHMBZPN BDNYTBMB vBTTPUCH), “TSELYFYOSHAOSHS”, “nBETYN”, “veMSHNPOFE”, “rBTBOBYVB”, “th RYTBOSB", "yZHBFENY", "bTBZHBK" Y "vYVETYVE " sing VSHCHMY OBYUYFEMSHOP MHYUYE Y OEUTBCHOOOP UYMSHOEE CHPPTHTSEOSH, YUEN YI RTPPHYCHOIL, LPFPTSCHI SING DPMTSOSCH VSHCHMY KHOYUFPTSYFSH UB 10 NYOHF. rBTBZCHBKGSH RPDPYMY VMYOLP, PFLTSCHCH TsBTLYK PZPOSH YUCHPYI ZMBDLPUFCHPMSHOSHI RKHOYEL. h "TSELYFYOSHAOSHA" RPRBMP OUEULPMSHLP UOBTSDPCH, Y, OBNETECHBSUSH VETSBFSH, BY WE ABOUT NEMSH, ZDE Y VSHM PUFBCHMEO UCHPYN LYRBTSEN. "rBTBOBYVB" VSCHM CHSF RBTBZCHBKGBNY ABOUT BVPTDBC Y RPOEU OBYUYFEMSHOSCHK HTPO. fTY OERTYSFEMSHULYI RBTPIPDB PLTHTSYMY EZP, RTY LFPN 28 YUEMPCHEL VSHMP KHVYFP, B 20 RTSHCHZOKHMY ЪB VPTF Y KHFPOKHMY. lPNBODYT PDOPZP YЪ VTBCHIYI EZP ABOUT BVPTDBC RBTBZCHBKULYI UHDPCH VShchM, PDOBLP, KHVYF, Y “rBTBOBYVKH” URBU RPPDYEDYK “bNBЪPOBU”. ON KHDBTYM CH "rBTBZKHBTY" Y RPUBDYM EZP ABOUT GERMANSH. yuEUFSH LFPC RPVEDSCH PFOADSH OE RTYOBDMETSYF BDNYTBMH vBTTPUH; BY RTSFBMUS PE CHTENS UTBTSEOYS CH UCHPEK LBAFE Y CHCHCHYEM OE TBOEE, YUEN POP PLPOYUMPUSH. "VEMSHNPOFE" FPTSE RPMKHYUM OEULPMSHLP UOBTSDPCH CH CHBFETMYOYA Y, OBRPMOMYCHYUSH CHPDPK, DPMTSEO VSHM CHSHVTPUIFSHUS ABOUT NEMSH.
rBTBZCHBKGSH RPUFTBDBMY UIMSHOEEE. h UBNPN OBYUBME UTBTSEOYS ZTBOBFPK RTPVIMP LPFMSCH ABOUT “IEEHY”, Y EZP RPOEUMP FEUEOYEN NYNP VTPOEOPUGECH; POP PFDBMP SLPTSH OUEULPMSHLP OITSE, J FPZDB VTBYMSHGSH OBRTBCHYMY ABOUT OEZP UCHPY PTHDYS Y RPFPRYMY. x “pMYODSHCH” Y “UBMSHFP” FPTSE VSCHMY RTPVYFSH SDTBNY LPFMSCH, SING OE NPZMY KHRTBCHMSFSHUS, Y FEUEOYEN YI RPUBDYMP ABOUT NEMSH. x "fBLKHBTY" CHPLTHZ PDOPZP YJ LPFMPCH MPROKHMB PVIYCHLB, OP UBN LPFEM OE VSHM RPCHTETSDEO. x “YZKHTEY” PDYO LPFEM TBVIMP 68-ZHHOFPCHSHCHN SDTPN, OP UHDOP NPZMP LPE-LBL DCHYZBFSHUS U RPNPESH DTHZPZP. YuEFSHTE RBTBZCHBKULYI RBTPIPDB, OBIPDICHYYIUS EEE ABOUT IPDH, OBLPOEG KHDBMYMYUSH, B VTBYMSHSHCH, YNECHYYE UENSH ZPTBJDP MHYUYI EDYOYG, DBMY YN HKFY Y RPUMEDPCHBMY ЪB OINY ABOUT RPYUFYFEMSHOPN TBUUFPSOYY, IPFS DCHB YЪ RBTBZCHBKULYI UHDPCH VSHCHMY FBL UYMSHOP RPCHTETSDEOSCH, UFP BDNYTBMH vBTTPUKH UFPYMP RPTSDPUOSHI KHYMYK KHDETSBFSHUS RPBDY OYI. ъБ БФХ VMEUFSEKHA RPVEDH vBTTPUKH RPMKHYUM VBTPOUFChP ; B UBNP UTBTSEOYE CHRPUMEDUFCHYY VSHMP KHCHELPCHYUEOP CH OBCHBOYY VTBYMSHULPZP VTPOEOPUGB “TYBYKHMP”. rPFETY RBTBZCHBKGECH DPUFYZBMY 1000 YuEMPCHEL Y YuEFSHTE RBTPIPPDB, FPZDB LBL VTBYMSHSHCH, LBL UPPVEBMPUSH, LTPNE DCHHI RBTPIPDPCH RPFETSMY 300 YuEMPCHEL. rBTBZCHBKGSHCH UOSMY U "TSELYFYOSHAOSHY" VPMEE MEZLYE PTHDIS, LPFPTSCHE U YUYUFP VTBYMSHULPK RTEDPUFPPTTSOPUFSHA VSHMY PUFBCHMEOSCH CH YURTBCHOPUFY. rPVEDYFEMY CHUMED ЪB KHUREYPN KHDBMYMYUSH CHOYЪ RP TELE L zPKB, FBL LBL RBTBZCHBKGSH KHUFBOPCHYMY VBFBTEA YЪ 32-ZHHOFPCHSHCHI PTHDYK ABOUT RPYGYY X VEMMBCHYUFSHCH, OICE TYBY HMP. dPVMEUFOSCHK fBNBODBTE SCHYMUS YЪ vHIOPU-bKTEUB U VPMSHYYNYY RPDLTERMEOSNY, OP VEDEKUFCHYE RTDPDPMTSBMPUSH. pDOBTDSCH YUEFSHTE VTBYMSHULYI LPTBVMS RPDOSMYUSH CHCHETI RP rBTBOE Y RPSCHYMYUSH CH CHYDH TsBMLYI PUFBFLPCH PDOPK YЪ BTNYK mPREUB, RETERTBCHMSCHYIUS Yuetej rBTBOKH ABOUT NBMEOSHLY AND MPDLBI. CHUE RTYUHFUFCHBCHYE RTY LFPN ECHTPREKGSCH UYYFBMY RBTBZCHBKGECH RPZYYYYNY. OE YNES UHDHR DMS RTYLTSCHFYS, POY RPUME RPTBTTSEOYS PLBBBMYUSH DEPTZBOYPCHBOSH Y CH KHDTHYUEOOPN UPUFPSOYY. lP CHUEPVEEENH KhDYCHMEOYA, VTBYMShGSH PVTBFYMYUSH CH VEZUFCHP Y RHUFYMYUSH CHOI RP TELE, KHVEZBS PF UPMDBF CH MPDLBI Y OECHPPTHTSEOOSCHI RBTPIPDPCH!
oBLPOEG 21 NBTFB 1866 Z. fBNBODBTE OBYUBM RPDKHNSCHBFSH P UTBTSEOYY. rTY OEN OBIPDIYMYUSH FTY LBJENBFYTPCHBOOSCHI VTPOEOPUGB FYRB "NETTYNBLB" Y NPOYFPT "vBKS", ABOUT LPFPTPN VSHMP DCHB 150-ZHHOFPCHSHCHI OBTEOSCHI PTHDYS CH PDOPC VBYOE. 27. Kommersant PDOPC 8-DAKNPCHPK ZMBDLPUFCHPMSHOPK RHYLY. ABOUT LFPF TB VTBYMSHGSH RTDPDENPOUFTYTPCHBMY KHDYCHYFEMSHOKHA VEDDBTOPUFSH. sDTB Y ZTBOBFSH YI USCHRBMYUSH RPCHUADH, OP FPMSHLP OE CHVMYY MPDLY. oBLPOEG POB VSHMB RPFPRMEOB, OP MYYSH RPUME FPZP, LBL KHUREMB OBDEMBFSH NOPZP CHTEDB. pDOP YE SFET KHDBTYMP CH LPUSL RKHYYUOPZP RPTFB VTBYMSHULPZP VTPOEOPUGB “fBNBODBTE” Y TBMEFEMPUSH ABOUT YUBUFY, LPFPTSCHE, RPRBCH H LBJENBF, KHVYMY 23 YUEMPCHELB Y TBOYMY 15. rPUME LFPPZP OE RPLBTSEFUS HDYCHYFEMSHOSCHN FPF ZBLF, YuFP PDYO ZPTF CH yFBKRKHTY, RTY UMYSOY rBTBOSH U rBTBZCHBEN, ЪBDETTSYCHBM fBNBODBTE GEMSHCHE OEDEMY, IPFS CH OEN OBIPYMPUSH CHUEZP PDOP PTHDYE . UHDB UP UFTBYOPK OOETZYEK VPNVBTDYTPCHBMY LFP KHLTERMEOYE, OP, LBL LFP RPUFPSOOP Y RTPYUIPDYMP RTY YI PRETBGYSI, OILBL OE NPZMY RPRBUFSH CH PTHDYS, YMY CH PTHDYE, L BL RTBCHYMSHOEE VKhDEF CHSTBYFSHUS CH LFPN UMKHYUBE, YMY TSE TBOYFSH LPZP-MYVP YЪ RTYUMKHZY. ъBFP POY UOBVTSBMY RBTBZCHBKGECH TSEMEЪPN, ЪBRBU LPFPTPZP KH RPUMEDOYI UIMSHOP YUFPEYMUS, FBL YUFP YI UPVUFCHEOOSCH ZTBOBFSH VSHCHMY TBURMBCHMEOSCH Y PFMYFSHCH SDTB YMY Ts E YNY ЪBTTSSBMY RHYLY, ЪBICHBUEOOSCH KH VTBYMSHGECH, DMS UFTEMSHVSH RP OIN UBNYN.
yFBKRKHTY U FEYOOYEN CHTENEY RBM, B EZP EDYOUFCHEOOBS RHYLB VSHMB KHCHEOB RBTBZCHBKGBNY. uPAЪOBS BTNYS FERETSH DPMTSOB VSHMB DEKUFChPCHBFSH CH VPMPPHYUFPK NEUFOPUFY, ZHUFP RPTPUYEK LHUFBTOILPN, RTPFYCH CHP'CHSHCHYBCHYEKUS OBD rBTBOPK RBTBZCHBKULPK LTERPUFY iHNBYFB. OYCE, X lHTHRBYFY Y lHTHHGH, Y CHCHYE, X fYNVP, OBIPDIMYUSH CHCHOEOOOSCH CHREDED KHLTERMEOYS, LPFPTSHCHE MEZLP NPZMY VSHCHFSH CHUSFSH ZHMPFPN RTY UPDEKUFCHYY BTNYY. chNEUFP LFPPZP 11 NEUSGECH KHYMP O RKHUFHA VPNVBTDYTPCHLH, RTYUEN RBTBZCHBKGSHCH, UP UCHPEK UFPTPOSCH, URKHULBMY ABOUT OERTYSFEMS VTBODETSH Y RMBCHHYUYE NYOSCH. 1 UEOFSVTS 1866 Z. RTPIЪPYMP ZPTSYUEE DEMP U VBFBTEEK X lHTHGY, ABOUT LPFPTPK OBIPDIMYUSH PDOB 8-DAKNPCHBS Y DCHE 32-ZHHOFPCHSHE ZMBDLPUFCHPMSHOSCHI RKHYLY, B LTPNE FPZP, EEE 10 NEOSHIYI. ABOUT LBENBFYTPCHBOOPN VTPOEOPUGE "TYP TsBOEKTP" DCHHNS 68-ZHHOFPCHSHNY SDTBNY VSHMB RTPVYFB 4-DAKNPCHBS VTPOS, Y, KhDBTYCHYYUSH P RBTBZCHBKULHA NYOH, LPTBVMSH ЪBF POKHM CHNEUFE U LPNBODITPN Y VPMSHYEK YUBUFSHA LPNBODSCH. "yCHBY" VSHM RTYCHEDEO CH OZPDOPUFSH SDTPN, RTPVICHYYN EZP LPFMSH. 2nd 3 UEOFSVTS VPNVBTDYTPCHLB EEE RTDPDPMTSBMBUSH, IPFS TEKHMSHFBF EE VShchM UPCHETYOOOP OYUFPTSEO, RPLB, OBLPOEG, CHCHUBDYCHYYEUS ChPKULB OE VTPUYMYUSH CH BFBLH Y OE CH ЪSMY KHLTERMEOYE.
CHUMED UB FEN VSHMB RTPY'CHEDEO BFBLB ABOUT lHTHHRBYFIY. ABOUT LFPC RPIYGYY OBIPYMPUSH 47 PTHDYK Y DCHE TBLEFOSCHE RKHYLY, OP YI OYI FPMSHLP 13 PWUFTEMYCHBMY TELH. vPNVBTDYTPCHLB OBYUBMBUSH 22 UEOFSVTS Y DMYMBUSH OUEULPMSHLP OEDEMSH. h PFDEMSHOSHE DOY VTBYMSHSHCHCHSHCHRKHULBMY RP KHLTERMEOYA DP 4000 SDET Y ZTBOBF, OE KHVYCHBS RTY LFPN OH PDOPZP YUEMPCHELB Y OE UVYCHBS OH PDOPZP PTHDYS. l YUBUFSHA VHIBYMYYY, fBNBODBTE VSHM PFPYCHBO CH DELBVTE 1866 Z., Y NEUFP EZP ЪBOSM BDNYTBM YZOBUYP, OEULPMSHLP VPMEE DESFEMSHOSHCHK Y RTEDRTYYNYUYCHSHCHK. YOBYUE VTBYMSHULYK ZHMPF RTDDPMTsBM VSC FTBFYFSH ЪBTSDSH ABOUT lHTHHRBYFFY GEMSHCHK CHEL. 15 BCHZKHUFB 1867 Z. OPCHPRTYVSCCHYYK BDNYTBM U DECHSFSHA VTPOEOPUGBNY RTPYEM NYNP KHLTERMEOYS lHTKHRBYFY. vTBYMSHULYE LPTBVMY RPMHYYUMY NOPZP RPCHTETSDEOYK, Y PDOP SDTP, RPRBCH CH RPTF "fBNBODBTE" (RPDPVOSHCHK UMKHYUBK RTPYЪPYEM U LFYN TSE LPTBVMEN KhCE CHFPTK TBJ), TBOIMP EZP LPNBODITB, B FBLCE KHVYMP Y TBOIMP EEE 15 YUEMPCHEL. rTPKDS NYNP RBTBZCHBKULYI PTHDYK, VTBYMSHGSH PFTENPOFYTPCHBMY RPCHTETSDEOOSH LPTBVMY Y TsDBMY, B RBTBZCHBKGSH FEN CHTENEOEN RETEFBEYMY UCHPY PTHDYS YЪ lHTHRBYFY CH SHCHYE RP TELE. fBLYN PVTBBPN, VTBYMShGSH DCHBTDSCH RTPYMY NYNP FAIRIES TSE PTHDYK, RTBCHDB KHUFBOPCHMEOOSCHI CH TBMYUOSCHI NEUFBI.
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Latin American peoples for national liberation in 1810-26. By the end of the 18th century, in the Spanish and Portuguese colonies in America, the process of formation of the bourgeoisie accelerated, the layer of Creole latifundists, oriented towards foreign markets, strengthened, and the intelligentsia emerged. These social groups experienced acute dissatisfaction with the policy of severe restrictions on trade and entrepreneurship carried out by the colonial authorities, discrimination against Creoles in the legal sphere, and the lack of favorable conditions for creative activity. At the same time, a huge mass of peasants, consisting of Indians and mestizos, were subjected to brutal exploitation and sought to gain the opportunity to freely work on the land of their ancestors. Hundreds of thousands of slaves, who had no rights and were subjected to ruthless exploitation, also dreamed of freedom. The ideas of the Enlightenment had a huge influence on the educated part of Latin American society. Ferment in the colonies was caused by news breaking through censorship barriers about the victory of the former British colonies in the War of Independence in North America 1775-83, and about the French Revolution of the 18th century.
The collapse of absolutism in France gave impetus to the beginning of the armed struggle for liberation in Latin America. In 1789, mulattoes rebelled, and in August 1791, black slaves rebelled in the French island colony of Saint-Domingue (see Haitian slave revolution 1791-1803). In battles with French regular troops, they managed to win, achieve the abolition of slavery and proclaim the independence of the state of Haiti (1/1/1804). The liberation of Haiti had significant consequences for the emancipation of other Latin Americans, who took it as an example of decisive action and saw in Haiti a possible springboard for organizing military expeditions to the continent.
The occupation of Spain by Napoleonic troops in the spring of 1808 led to an acute political crisis in this country and the formation of a power vacuum in the Spanish colonies in America. The Creoles took advantage of this, consolidated and in 1810 began the struggle for independence. Three main centers of war emerged: most of the Viceroyalty of La Plata (modern Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay), the Andean countries (Venezuela, New Granada - modern Colombia, Chile, Peru and Quito - modern Ecuador) and New Spain (Mexico). The uprisings did not have a common leadership center, and the activities of the rebels were not coordinated in any way. The initiators of armed uprisings everywhere were Creole landowners, traders, artisans and intellectuals. In a number of areas they were joined by peasants and slaves, and in New Spain the peasant masses became the leading force of the liberation movement for two years (1813-15).
The war went through two stages. The first stage (1810-16) began with the seizure of local power by the Creoles. During the War of Independence in Venezuela, which began on April 19, 1810 under the leadership of F. de Miranda and S. Bolivar, the Creoles twice created an independent state (the First Venezuelan Republic in July 1811 - July 1812 and the Second Venezuelan Republic in August 1813 - December 1814). The May Revolution of 1810 in Buenos Aires, led by M. Belgrano and M. Moreno, led in its development to the declaration of Argentine independence at the Congress of Tucuman in 1816. In 1811, Paraguay became the independent republic. From November 1811 to May 1816, the Confederation of the United Provinces of New Granada existed, which was created by S. Bolivar and A. Nariño. In 1811, a rebel army led by J. Artigas began to operate in the province of the Eastern Bank (Uruguay), which managed to expel the Spaniards from its territory three years later. In Chile, patriotic rule lasted from September 1810 to October 1814. At this stage of the war, the struggle for national independence in New Spain, led by M. Hidalgo y Costilla and J. Morelos y Pavon, acquired the most fierce character. The first stage of the war ended everywhere (except La Plata) with the restoration of the power of the Spanish colonial administration. The defeat of the liberation movement was due to the inconsistency of the actions of the rebels, different understandings of socio-political tasks by the participants in the movement, as well as the restoration of the old government in Spain itself, encouraged by the Holy Alliance to suppress anti-colonial protests.
The second stage (1816-26) began in the context of the retreat of revolutionary forces. However, the patriots soon seized the initiative. The army of J. de San Martin was especially successful, which completed the liberation of most of the territory of La Plata and, in cooperation with the army of B. O’Higgins (Battle of the Chacabuco Plain 1817), expelled the Spaniards from Chile. A huge role at this stage was played by S. Bolivar, who managed to mobilize the forces of patriots in the Andean countries. The independence of Venezuela was ensured by the victories of his army in the battles of Boyaca (1819) and Carabobo (1821). His comrade-in-arms A.H. de Sucre won freedom for Quito, Peru and Upper Peru (modern Bolivia) in the battles of Pichincha (1822), Junin and Ayacucho (1824), and Tumusla (1825). Mexico declared independence in 1821. In 1823, the peoples of this region, liberated in the early 1820s, united into the United Provinces of Central America. The final act of the war was the surrender of the last Spanish garrison in January 1826 in the Peruvian port of Callao. Spain managed to maintain only two colonies in the Western Hemisphere: Cuba and Puerto Rico.
The liberation process took place in a special way in the Portuguese colony in America - Brazil. The development of the situation in this country was seriously influenced by the move to Rio de Janeiro in 1808 from Europe of the Portuguese royal court and the creation in 1815 of the “United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves,” which existed until Brazil declared independence in 1822. As a result, Brazil retained its territorial integrity and form of government, but its development acquired a distinctly conservative character.
The victory of the Latin Americans in the War of Independence was greatly facilitated by external circumstances, including events in Spain (the revolution of 1820-23 and the French intervention of 1823), strong British objections to the interventionist plans in Latin America of the Holy Alliance powers (Russia took a neutral position, objectively contributed to the achievement of the goals of the patriots), the Monroe Doctrine of 1823, proclaimed by the United States in order to prevent the penetration of European rivals into lands that the American government and the business class considered their zone of interests.
The Revolutionary War brought about important economic and political changes. Their original focus, especially in those areas where the movement was led by forward-thinking figures, was associated with the desire to transform Latin America into a civilized community in which a dynamic economy would be combined with the establishment of civil society and democratic institutions. This was achieved by measures to expropriate the lands of the church and Indian communities, free trade and production from all kinds of restrictions, abolish slavery, and proclaim republican constitutions. But the ways in which these types of programs were implemented led to different results. The land was not in the hands of the peasants, but passed to the latifundists, which led to centuries-long stagnation in agrarian relations. The consequence of the liberalization of foreign trade was the massive displacement from domestic markets of the products of local handicraft enterprises and manufactories by goods produced in British factories, which, together with government loans from European bankers, soon resulted in the stable financial and economic dependence of Latin America on the leading powers. The republican form of government met the political interests of large landowners, who for many years did not allow representatives of other social groups to come to power. The War of Independence acquired some features of a bourgeois revolution, which stopped in its development and remained unfinished. Nevertheless, it solved the most important historical task - it brought the countries of Latin America out of the colonial state and laid the foundations for their development as sovereign states.
Lit.: Campano L. Biografia del Libertador Simon Bolivar. R., 1868; Slezkin L. Yu. Russia and the War of Independence in Spanish America. M., 1964; Alperovich M.S. Spanish America in the struggle for independence. M., 1971; Marchuk N. N. Liberal reforms and the War of Independence of Latin America. M., 1999; Silva Ericksen G. V. Breve encuentros con la historia: la independencia de América y sus causas. Iquique, 2001; Fornés Bonavia L. La independencia dê América. Lima, 2005.
E. A. Larin, N. N. Marchuk.
Since the arrival of the Portuguese in Brazil, border clashes began to arise between them and the Spaniards.
The problem of delimiting colonial possessions in South America, despite the signing of a number of treaties, was never resolved. It was “inherited” by the independent states formed in the first half of the 19th century. One of these states was Paraguay. This country developed almost in isolation from the rest of the countries in the region. The leadership of Paraguay supported the course of building a self-sufficient, autonomous economy. The Lopez regime (Carlos Antonio Lopez was succeeded as president in 1862 by his son, Francisco Solano Lopez) was characterized by strict centralization. About 98% of the land was owned by the state. The government had complete control over exports. Imports were actually blocked by high customs duties. Unlike neighboring countries, Paraguay did not take out external loans. At the same time, the government made efforts to modernize the armed forces. The country began producing artillery pieces and ammunition, and warships were built at the shipyards of Asuncion.
Francisco Lopez dreamed of the country acquiring access to the Atlantic Ocean, which was a necessary prerequisite for increasing exports. But this plan could only be realized by seizing part of Brazilian territory. Naturally, Brazil was not going to voluntarily cede its lands to Paraguay. Here its interests coincided with the interests of other neighboring states - Argentina and Uruguay. On May 1, 1865, after the start of the war, these countries signed an agreement that went down in history as the Triple Alliance.
STRENGTHS OF THE PARTIES
By the beginning of 1864, Paraguay had one of the most powerful armies in Latin America, numbering 38 thousand soldiers and officers with 400 guns. In the following months, during mobilization, the size of the army increased to 80 thousand people. The river squadron included 23 steamships and five gunboats. The five newest battleships ordered in Europe did not arrive before the outbreak of hostilities, and were later even purchased by Brazil and became part of its fleet.
Paraguay's opponents, who were not preparing for war, had much more modest forces. The strength of the Brazilian army was about 16 thousand people, another 4 thousand served in the fleet, which had 45 ships with 239 guns. Argentina had 8.5 thousand people in the army and five warships in the navy. Finally, Uruguay had a tiny army of 2 thousand people and no navy at all. All three countries also carried out mobilization activities. For example, Brazil put a total of 146 thousand people under arms from 1864 to 1870.
BEGINNING OF THE WAR
The reason for the outbreak of hostilities was the capture of the Brazilian ship Olinda on November 12, 1864 by the Paraguayan gunboat Tacuari. After this, armed clashes began along the entire Brazilian-Paraguayan border, and a month later, on December 13, Paraguay declared war on Brazil. The initial target, in accordance with the plans of the Paraguayan military-political leadership, was to be the Brazilian units stationed in Uruguay. By doing so, Lopez hoped to help his political allies in Uruguay.
However, this required crossing the territory of Argentina, whose government refused to let Paraguayan troops through. In response, on March 18, 1865, Paraguay also declared war on Argentina. Uruguay also entered into an alliance with Brazil and Argentina, thereby completing the formation of the Triple Alliance.
PARAGUAYAN OFFENSIVE
In December 1864, Paraguayan troops invaded the Brazilian province of Mato Grosso in two columns. Colonel Barrios's 5,000-strong detachment, moving on river steamers along the Paraguay River, captured the strategically important fort of Nova Coimbra, and in January 1865 occupied the cities of Albuquerque and Corumba. The second detachment, led by Colonel Ruskin (4 thousand people) invaded Mato Grosso to the south. Having defeated the Brazilian troops, he reached the Cochin area by April 1865. Further advances were suspended because the Paraguayan operations in Mato Grosso were considered secondary - they were only supposed to divert Brazilian troops from the south.
The second stage of the Paraguayan offensive was the invasion of the Argentine province of Corrientes and the Brazilian Rio Grande do Sul. The squadron, going down the Parana River, locked the Argentine ships in the port of Corrientes, and the units of General Robles that followed took the city. At the same time as Robles’ troops, a ten-thousand-strong detachment of Lieutenant Colonel Estigarribia crossed the Argentine border south of Encarnacion. In May 1865, he reached the Brazilian province of Rio Grandido Sul, went down the Uruguay River and took the city of São Borja on June 12, 1865. Uruguayana, located further south, was taken on August 5 without offering much resistance.
WAR AGAINST THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE
The fighting took place mainly along the rivers of the La Plata basin, which were the main lines of communication. Control over the rivers, due to the undeveloped network of land routes, decided the outcome of the war.
On June 11, 1865, the Battle of Riachuelo took place between the fleets of the parties. According to the plan of F. S. Lopez, the Paraguayan fleet was supposed to surprise a large Brazilian squadron.
However, it was not possible to use the factor of surprise, and the Brazilian ships under the command of Francisco Manuel Barroso da Silva managed to defeat the strong Paraguayan fleet, preventing further advance of the Paraguayans into Argentine territory. The battle practically decided the outcome of the war in favor of the Triple Alliance, which from that moment controlled the rivers of the La Plata basin.
FRACTURE
The loss of the fleet had a fatal impact on the fate of the Paraguayan troops that invaded Argentina. The Allies, having gathered large forces near Uruguayana, surrounded the Paraguayan detachment located here, which was forced to surrender on September 18, 1865. In the following months, Paraguayan troops were driven out of the cities of Corrientes and San Cosme, leaving the last piece of Argentine land still in Paraguayan hands. Thus, by the end of 1865, the Triple Alliance went on the offensive. His armies, numbering over 50,000 men, were ready to invade Paraguay.
INVASION OF PARAGUAY
From April 1866 to July 1868, military operations took place near the confluence of the Paraguay and Parana rivers, where the Paraguayans located their main fortifications. On May 24, 1866, the Battle of Tuyuti took place - the largest pitched battle in the history of South America, nicknamed the “Latin American Waterloo.” 57 thousand people took part in the battle - 22 thousand Paraguayans, who were opposed by 35 thousand allies. The Paraguayan army suffered a crushing defeat, losing 13 thousand people killed and wounded (allied losses amounted to four thousand). Despite this success of the Triple Alliance troops, the Paraguayan fortresses delayed the advance of the Allied forces for more than two years.
DECISIVE BATTLES
On July 25, 1868, after a long siege, the most important Paraguayan fortress, Humaita, fell. Having launched an offensive on Asuncion, the allied army marched 200 km to the Pikissiri River, on which the Paraguayans built a defensive line that took advantage of the terrain and included the forts of Angostura and Ita Ibate. Lopez managed to concentrate about 18 thousand people here. Not wanting to be drawn into frontal battles, the Allied Commander-in-Chief, the Brazilian Duke of Caxias, decided to act more flexibly. While the fleet attacked the fortifications of Fort Angostura, the troops crossed to the right bank of the river. Having built a road through the Chaco swamps, Caxias' soldiers were able to advance to the northeast, and at the city of Villeta they crossed the river again, thus bypassing the Paraguayan fortifications and cutting them off from Asuncion. Having completed the crossing, Caxias did not take the practically defenseless Asuncion. Instead, the Allies struck south, behind the Paraguayan fortifications.
In December 1868, during several battles, the remnants of the Paraguayan army were practically defeated. On January 1, 1869, the Allies entered Asuncion. F. S. Lopez tried to continue the fight in the mountains northeast of the capital. During the year, the allied army of 21 thousand people suppressed the resistance of the Paraguayans. In the battles of Piribebuy and Acosta Nu, more than 5 thousand people died on the Paraguayan side, a significant part of them were children drafted into the army.
On March 1, 1870, General Camara's troops surprised the last camp of Paraguayan troops at Cerro Cora. Francisco Solano Lopez was killed while trying to swim across the Aquidaban River. Lopez's death marked the end of the Paraguayan War.
RESULTS OF THE WAR
Paraguay suffered heavy human losses during the war. Their scale still causes debate, but the very fact of the death of most of the population is not disputed by anyone. In 1871, 221 thousand people lived in the country (including only 28 thousand adult men), while before the war the population was 525 thousand people. The country lost almost half of its territory. Allied losses were also high. Brazil increased its territory somewhat, but paid dearly for the victory. Within five years, Brazil spent twice as much money as it received, causing a financial crisis. The payment of a significantly increased public debt negatively affected the country's economy for several decades. In Argentina, the war led to economic modernization. For several decades it became the most prosperous country in Latin America, and the annexed territories made it the strongest state in the La Plata basin.
