First: determine your range of interests. Since the middle of the 19th century, about a million stamps have been issued in the world; they were and are issued by absolutely all countries, as well as by many temporary postal administrations of military and revolutionary times, and private postal services. The pleasure of “embracing the immensity” can only be afforded by people with broad financial resources and a lot of free time, as well as “state collectors” such as the President of the United States and the Queen of Great Britain (it’s nice to feel in such company, isn’t it?). At the start, you need to set limits on your strengths and interests. And don’t be afraid to start small; expanding the scope of your collection is always easier than narrowing it after realizing that the task at hand is overwhelming. There are two main types of stamp collections: chronology (a collection of stamps from a particular country) and thematic (a collection of stamps from different countries on a particular topic). In our country, the most popular are domestic brands (Russia, USSR, Russian Empire), as well as brands from countries historically and culturally associated with us (all republics of the former Soviet Union, neighboring countries). The most popular philately topics are nature (flora and fauna), space, transport, art, sports, outstanding people, history.
Second: choose the sources of stamps in the collection and the place for consultations. Happy is the philatelist who has the opportunity to regularly replenish his collection by visiting several reliable stores in his city. If you live in a big city, visit stamp shops, the local Philatelic Society, talk to sellers and specialists. Feel where you were most comfortable, where you were served in the best way and were offered not only the most complete range of brands, but also consulting services (answers to questions, expertise, library, etc.). If there are no collection stores in your city, it doesn’t matter; high-quality service from a reputable online store today almost completely replaces real communication. And, of course, pay attention to the range of collectibles and literature offered to you (primarily brand catalogs), which you will focus on when forming your collection.
Third: decide on the format for exhibiting and storing the collection. As long as your collection consists of several dozen stamps, all you need is a philatelist's initial set: a bookkeeper (album for stamps), tweezers and a magnifying glass. As your hobby develops, acquires interesting and expensive exhibits, and expands your collection to include other philatelic collectibles in addition to stamps (postcards, envelopes, etc.), you will need universal albums. Today the question of “where to buy or order the desired album” is easily resolved; the question of “which album to choose” is much more important. Talk about this in a store you like, look at samples, take your time choosing one or another system for storing and displaying the collection (stamps placed in an inappropriate album can then be rearranged, but not everyone enjoys this process).
Instructions
First of all, you need to understand that a brand itself has no value. It's just a small piece of paper with a picture of something on it. What makes it valuable is only the desire and desire of another person to purchase this specimen for their collection, paying a certain amount of money. Obviously, the value of brands is not related to the economy and global trends.
To determine the value of stamps in their circles, philatelists created catalogs. The most current ones are the Scott catalogs (), the Michaels catalog (very detailed,). You can also find Russian catalogs in specialized stores, but they have not received such fame.
Prices in catalogs appear after a thorough study of the postage stamp market. They are advisory in nature and do not serve as a guarantee that the brand will actually be purchased at such a high price, for example. The cheapest brands, mostly multi-circulation ones, are sold by the kilogram or pound.
Stamps in perfect condition, in the truest sense of the word, are most valued. They must be uncanceled (not have a postal stamp), with intact teeth, with fully preserved glue on the back side, without scratches or wrinkles. Cancelled stamps have value only if they were issued in small quantities and were almost never used for postal purposes. The date stamp is important here, and it’s best to even keep the envelope.
The cost of stamps depends on general trends in the world of philately. For example, now stamps of the USSR, the Vatican, and Africa are sold at prices much lower than those indicated in catalogs, since these countries are not yet “in fashion.” However, everything can change at any moment.
Other ways to determine the value of stamps include auction houses and some online resources. However, when turning to such sources, it is necessary to first make inquiries about their reputation in order to avoid unpleasant situations in the future.
Stamp collecting can be not only fun, but also financially rewarding. If you own a stamp collection, you may one day find yourself sitting on the “golden mound.” If you decide to sell a brand or an entire collection, study the prices on the market and learn how to negotiate.
Instructions
Check yours carefully to find out which brands you have. Collect detailed information about brands - this will help establish their approximate value. The corresponding brand catalogs can be of great help. You should do an analysis before you decide to look for a potential buyer for this exotic product.
Consult with a specialist in the field to determine the most accurate price and check copies. Today you can find professional experts and appraisers on some websites. Contacting a specialist will help you make an informed decision about selling your brand. Keep in mind that the cost of a particular specimen is largely determined by its safety. Crumpled or damaged, it is inferior in price to other copies.
Having established a circle of potential buyers, analyze, if possible, their past purchases, find out their tastes and preferences. Pay attention to the average price they paid for their past purchases. This information is usually found on auction sites that have profile pages for potential buyers. It is possible that these people will be interested in exactly the brands that you are ready to put up for sale.
The stage of negotiations with a potential buyer begins. In negotiations, use the information that you were able to glean from open sources about your brands and the buyer. Refer to expert assessment. Be prepared to have to bargain. If a buyer offers a obviously unacceptable price for your product, do not be afraid to refuse him. Often, when faced with your refusal, a true connoisseur of stamps will still prefer to make a concession and accept the terms you offer.
Sources:
People began collecting stamps back in the 19th century. Modern philatelists collect thematic and chronological collections, hunt for canceled and uncanceled stamps. Stamp collecting can be called a way of life rather than just a hobby.
Instructions
When starting to build your own collection, you need to decide on a few things. Firstly - will you be collecting canceled or uncanceled stamps? Several decades ago, canceled stamps were very popular among philatelists. Uncanceled stamps were not recognized at all. Indeed, each brand that has made a long journey from the sender of a letter to the recipient has its own unique story. There is a story according to which on December 12, 1912, all post offices in France were filled with philatelists who wanted to receive a postmark with the cancellation date “12/12/1912”. Modern collectors also collect uncanceled stamps - they can also be unique in their own way.
With the disappearance of communism, not only the political but also the financial structure of the state changed. Entrepreneurs have more opportunities to realize their ideas and build a quality business. At the same time, the collecting market began to develop, and the number of interested people grew every year.
It is known that in Soviet times, many citizens loved to collect various items, including medals, orders, coins, banknotes, flags, signs, badges and stamps. The dominant organization produced them in large quantities, promoting its ideology to the masses. For example, stamps were made in honor of national heroes, anniversaries, etc. Soviet stamps price catalog began to attract collectors a long time ago.
What is philately? First of all, this is an exciting activity for extraordinary and inquisitive individuals who strive to learn history through stamps. In addition, collecting products is a profitable business. You can sell USSR postage stamps and their prices in specialized stores.
If someone wants to invest money, but does not know how to do it, you can pay attention to an interesting hobby - philately.
Every collector wants to eventually assemble an exclusive collection of products. After all, these exhibits have artistic value and are classified as miniature graphics. Today, philately is a popular hobby; there are millions of people around the world who are passionate about this activity. Having collected a full-fledged collection, it is possible to study the history of postal services. The specimens will also help create a picture of world civilization. You can always analyze USSR stamps, cost catalog prices.
Note that philately has existed for about two hundred years; for some collectors it has become the meaning of life. Each stamp has an original design, inscription, and decor. The highest prices are for rare exhibits.
In the 19th century, the most expensive exhibit was released, which immediately became a collector's item. Since then, copies have constantly changed design and image. Analyze all postage stamps by year with pictures in special editions.
Experts conducted an auction analysis in 2008 and found that the most expensive stamp was the 1857 copy. The price for the stamp was about 700 thousand US dollars. It depicted a double-headed eagle. Now only a few exhibits of such stamps have survived.
Since 1832, stamps began to be used as payment for postal services. After several developments by Treffenberg and Chalmers, stamps began to be printed in batches. They indicated the cost of delivery of the goods. The price depended on the weight of the parcel. USSR postage stamps catalog prices sell through online resources.
Let us remember that Rowland Hill was the first to propose using stamps to pay for postage. He is also credited for creating the sketch for the first postal copy. It was printed in Britain in the mid-19th century. Later, the Universal Postal Union established details and signs for each state.
Over time, stamps began to be perceived not only as an attribute of sending letters, but also as a collectible item. There was even a scientific discipline about stamps - philately.
After Britain, other European powers, including Imperial Russia, began to use stamps. In 1957, a ten-kopeck stamp was printed in Russia. It featured a coat of arms and a robe. Now this brand can be sold on the market for $500,000. Prices for postage stamps can be obtained from experts.
The first printed publication in the country appeared in 1861, in which one could find the most famous exhibits of that time. A few years after the catalog was issued, the postal service began using stamps when delivering letters. The government began to produce exhibits of various shapes: oval, round, rhombic. They also came with or without roots.
You can view USSR stamp prices in a specialized printed publication, which contains a full description of all copies, including photographs. After the revolution, the first Soviet stamp was printed, depicting a hand with a sword and chain. It was in circulation for only a few years, so the price for such a stamp is high. The resources have a catalog of USSR stamps and their prices.
In the early 1930s, the first open exhibition by a stamp collector was held, and in honor of this, a product called “Cardboard” was released. In total, no more than 550 such exhibits were printed. Today it is very difficult to find such specimens; the approximate price at auction is $500,000.
Of course, professional collectors are more interested in rare stamps. It is very difficult to find these stamps, as they are in private collections. It is no less easy to purchase rare items; they usually come with a huge price tag, which scares off many buyers. However, collectible lots are a means of reliable investment. Over time, you can make good money on a unique collection of stamps. USSR postage stamps catalog prices to sell at online auctions, indicating the real cost of the copies.
When the Soviet circus turned 40 years old, the authorities wanted to issue a stamp in honor of this event. However, disagreements over the founding of the circus played a decisive role in the cancellation of these brands. And only on the 60th anniversary of the circus, the government finally released a stamp called “Blue Gymnast.” Now these specimens are considered rare, so many philatelists are ready to pay a lot of money for it. You can study valuable stamps of the USSR and their value with photos through the catalog, which contains all the information about the exhibits.
“Limonka” is also considered a valuable brand on the market. A copy was released in 1925. The price for uncanceled exhibits is higher, so professional collectors monitor the latest market trends. The fact is that some of the stamps were not finished printing; as a result, a very small number of stamps of this type came into circulation. The last time such a stamp was sold at auction was $20,000.
In the late 1950s, due to political unrest, the release of copies in honor of the 250th anniversary of the Battle of Poltava was blocked. The authorities first removed the entire batch from circulation and then destroyed it. According to experts, only a few dozen stamps have survived. A similar situation happened with the exhibit called “Flight of Peace and Friendship.” Cancelled stamps of the USSR, their value is fully described in printed publications, their photographs are published there for detailed study.
In addition, there are brands with their own unique history. This factor affects the final cost of the series. For example, the copy “Levanevsky with overprint” contains a typographical error, which is highly valued by philatelists on the market. Also the stamp “Flight Moscow – San Francisco via North. pole 1935" is classified as a rare specimen.
By order of the USSR, the “Consular Fifty Kopeck” items were made specifically for the embassy in Germany. This example has an overprint, which forced the authorities to withdraw the stamps from circulation. In other words, stamps containing errors in the text are much more expensive on the market than all others. However, there are only a small number of such brands throughout the country.
When it became possible to transport letters and parcels by plane in the country of the Soviets, the government issued the first multi-colored series of stamps. This exhibit depicted a Fokker F-111 aircraft. In the 2000s, this brand was sold on the market for $87,000. But to send airmail from Franz Josef Land to Arkhangelsk, the “Second International Polar Year” stamp was used. All information is available in the catalog, which describes rare stamps of the USSR, catalog prices.
In the early 1930s, the “Slate Blue Airship” stamp was created, which was printed in light blue, although the original plan was to have a brown tint. Since then, collectors have dreamed of owning rare pieces. Not long ago, a toothless stamp was sold at auction for $130,000. A catalog of USSR postage stamps can be sold using special online auctions. Before you buy or sell a stamp collection, you need to find out the real value of the exhibits.
Also sell the USSR postage stamps catalog in specialized retail outlets at predetermined prices. The cost of products is determined by the condition of the brand, so it is better to store cultural values in albums.
In the 1980s, the “Cosmos” stamp was issued, dedicated not only to the space successes of the USSR, but also to the Soyuz T-5 and T-7 spacecraft. Let us remember that at that time the country occupied a leading place in space exploration, so the authorities released paraphernalia with redoubled power. Stamp catalogs from 1980 will tell you in more detail about all the copies on this topic.
Rare stamps of the USSR price of the early 1990s are divided into a number of series. For example, then stamps were made in honor of Keres, the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, Lenin, Victory Day, etc. The government also released a batch of exhibits called “Boris Yeltsin. The first president of Russia."
To correctly determine the value of stamps, you need to evaluate the condition of the copies. It is important to remember that the price tag depends on the following things:
If the collection contains postage-cancelled stamps, they will be worth much less on the market than other exhibits. In this case, pure stamps will go under the hammer for higher prices. Stamps issued in honor of some memorable date can be sold on the market for a high price.
The least valued stamps are those without teeth and those that are damaged. Philatelists prefer to pay attention to rare and valuable exhibits with a unique history.
Now on the Internet there are a large number of advertisements like “selling USSR postage stamps, prices catalogue”. However, it is better to make deals with trusted online resources. You can find out the full list of the best online auctions on specialized forums where experienced philatelists communicate with each other. There is also information about trading platforms with a positive reputation. In this regard, before putting up an original collection of stamps for auction, it is better to consult with real specialists.
A story about rare stamps issued at one time in Russia and the Soviet Union, which today cost a lot of money.
It is known that the first postage stamp in Russia was issued on December 22, 1857. The first stamp was imperforate, since the punching machine ordered from Vienna arrived late and needed adjustment. The appearance of the stamp was invented by the senior engraver of the Expedition for the Procurement of State Papers, Franz Mikhailovich Kepler. It depicted postal horns, above which rose the coat of arms of the Russian Empire, and the inscription: “10 kopecks. per lot." One lot was equal to fourteen grams of writing. If the envelope weighed more, then more stamps had to be purchased.
The design of the first state stamp of Russia in various modifications was popular until 1923. Then the postal signs of the Russian Empire were replaced by stamps of the USSR. Some of them today are very, very expensive, representing a philatelic rarity.
"Tiflis Stamp" is a very rare postage stamp issued in the Russian Empire for the city post office of Tiflis (now Tbilisi) and Kojori in 1857. The release date and symbolism allow us to talk about “Tiflis Unique” as the first Russian brand.
Denomination - 6 kopecks. The picture shows the coat of arms of Tiflis, and above it is a double-headed eagle with drooping wings.
Only three specimens were found before the First World War. On October 5, 2008, at the largest philatelic auction David Feldman, one of the three copies of the “Tiflis Unique” known in the world at that time, previously owned by Zbigniew Mikulski, was sold for 480 thousand euros.
According to data from the official website of the National Academy of Philately of Russia, only five copies of the unique stamp are currently known in the world.
“Levanevsky with overprint” is the philatelic name of the USSR airmail stamp with a portrait of the pilot Levanevsky and an overprint, issued in a limited edition in honor of the interrupted flight Moscow - North Pole - San Francisco (USA).
There are rare varieties of this stamp - with a lowercase "f" in the word "San Francisco" - five stamps per sheet (one row) with an inverted overprint (presumably one sheet) and an inverted overprint with a lowercase "f" (presumably five pieces) .
The overprinted stamp was issued by the People's Commissariat of Postal Service on August 3, 1935 for the planned flight of Sigismund Levanevsky, Georgy Baidukov and Vasily Levchenko on the ANT-25 plane on the route Moscow - North Pole - San Francisco and was intended to pay for postal items on this plane. On that day, an attempt was actually made to fly a distance of 2 thousand kilometers, but it was interrupted due to a motor malfunction.
According to some reports [, the inverted overprint was made on several stamp sheets on the special instructions of the People's Commissar of Internal Affairs Genrikh Yagoda, who was known as a philatelist.
According to available data, a “Levanevsky with overprint” of good quality cost $150 in 1995, with a lowercase “f” - $250, with a “reversal” - $5,000, with a lowercase “f” on an “inversion” - $15,000. In 2003, “Levanevsky with an overprint" of good quality cost already $350-400, with a lowercase "f" - $500-600, with a "reverse" - $10,000, with a lowercase "f" on a "reverse" - $40,000-50,000.
In 2008, the misspelled stamp was sold at a Cherrystone auction in New York for $525,000.
“Hand with a sword cutting a chain” is the first postage stamp of the RSFSR. Released on October 25 (November 7), 1918.
A hand with a sword cuts a chain against the backdrop of sun rays, and on top is the inscription: “Russia.” The stamp exists in two colors: blue (denomination 35 kopecks) and dark brown (75 kopecks).
The stamp was made by order of the Provisional Government. The basis was taken from one of three specially painted miniatures by Richard Zarinysh.
"Hand with a Sword" did not receive widespread postal circulation. Therefore, canceled stamps are much less common than pure stamps.
The 1918 essay of the first postage stamp of the RSFSR “Hand with a Sword, Cutting a Chain” with a face value of 1 kopeck, which was never issued, is estimated at 12.5 thousand dollars.
Postage stamp of the Russian Empire, 17th issue. It was made in 1908 to replace the postal signs of 1889-1905.
It got its name from three “pearls” (circles) instead of the required four, which should have been located on the left and right sides between the frame indicating the denomination and the ornament that frames the central oval of the coat of arms.
“Consular” stamps are a series of official airmail stamps of the RSFSR. In 1922, after the formation of the Russian-German air communication society "Deruluft", the first international air line Moscow - Königsberg in the RSFSR was opened. Although the company's planes delivered only diplomatic mail, its charter provided for the possibility of sending private paid correspondence, paid for when sent from Moscow in Soviet stamps, and when sent from Germany - in German.
The stamps were intended to be used as postal stamps for franking official correspondence of the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs of the RSFSR and other Soviet organizations sent by air mail to Moscow. Since this issue was carried out without the consent of the People's Commissariat of Postal Service of the RSFSR, the initiative of the diplomatic mission was not approved in Moscow and, soon after the first flight with mail arrived in the capital, an order was issued to withdraw the stamps from circulation, and the circulation was requested to Moscow.
“Consular Fifty Kopecks” is a consular duty stamp with a face value of 50 kopecks with the overprint “Air Mail R.S.F.S.R. 1200 germ. stamps." This is one of the rarest postage stamps of the RSFSR, its estimated circulation is 50-75 copies. One such stamp was sold in 2008 at a Cherrystone auction for $63,250.
"Limonka" is a USSR postage stamp from the first standard issue, which was issued in 1925. In uncanceled form it is a rather rare postage stamp. Up to hundreds of copies are known.
During the production of the stamp, the perforation machine became unusable, while the remaining denominations were printed in full. In order not to disrupt the supply of postage stamps, the Goznak management decided to send this batch on time, without waiting for the 15-kopeck stamp to be printed. Due to the fact that the circulation of “Limonka” turned out to be very small, and this issue was intended to be sent to remote regions of the USSR, in which there were very few philatelists, almost all 15-kopeck stamps were used for their intended purpose, that is, redeemed by mail. The cost of the stamp is 15-20 thousand dollars.
“Aspidka” is what philatelists call a rare airmail stamp from the “Airship Construction in the USSR” series. On it, artist Vasily Zavyalov depicted an airship over the globe. The stamp was issued in May 1931 with a face value of 50 kopecks.
According to the project, it was supposed to be dark brown. However, part of the circulation - three thousand copies - was printed with black and blue (slate) ink.
The rarest “Aspidka” is in the toothless version. It is known that there are only 24 such brands.
A postage stamp, created based on a photographic poster by V. Koretsky and dedicated to the Great Patriotic War, was issued on August 12, 1941. It is considered rare, since during the war years a significant part of the circulation was lost in a warehouse during one of the bombings of Moscow.
By order of the USSR Ministry of Culture, the stamp was included in the list of rare postage stamps and blocks that are not subject to export (shipment) from the USSR.
Unissued USSR postage stamp from 1959. On a stamp with a face value of 40 kopecks, captured Swedish troops, led by Prime Minister Karl Pieper and field marshals, fold their flags in front of Peter I. The circulation of the stamp was already produced and ready for issue, but at this time diplomatic relations with Sweden intensified. After the visit of Swedish Prime Minister Erlander to the USSR, Khrushchev's return visit to Sweden was planned. On the eve of this meeting, they decided to destroy the circulation so as not to offend the new partners by focusing attention on such an unpleasant event for them as the defeat in the Battle of Poltava.
Officially, the postage stamp was sold for a few minutes, after which the circulation was confiscated and destroyed. 40 stamps have survived. They are known to cost approximately 10-20 thousand dollars.
"Flight of Peace and Friendship" to Denmark, Sweden and Norway." USSR Post 1964 4 kopecks. It is rare because the stamp was not issued because Khrushchev's planned visit to Sweden never took place.
A copy of the stamp that fell into the hands of collectors was sold in 2008 at the Cherrystone auction for $28,750.
The stamp, known as the "Blue Gymnast", was issued to commemorate the 40th anniversary of the Soviet circus. But it did not go into circulation due to disagreements about which year should be considered the year the circus was founded: 1920-1921 or 1934. Many years later, they decided to set the date - 1919. Therefore, the stamp was released only for the 60th anniversary of the circus in 1979. A copy of the unissued stamp, which ended up among collectors, was sold in 2008 at a Cherrystone auction for $13,800.
A rare postage stamp dedicated to the 20th anniversary of the reunification of Transcarpathian Ukraine with Soviet Ukraine. USSR Post 1965 4 kopecks.
A copy of the unissued stamp, which ended up among collectors, was sold in 2008 at a Cherrystone auction for $29,900.
The International Geophysical Year, which ran from July 1, 1957 to December 31, 1958, provoked a certain philatelic interest in the world. The postal departments of many dozens of countries unanimously responded to the global scientific action. More than a hundred postage stamps were issued. The USSR Post celebrated the IYY by releasing two interesting series.
A pair of 1958 40-kopeck USSR postage stamps “Study of the Auroras” from the “International Geophysical Year” series, in a rare linear perforation variety, was sold at auction for $14,500.
Also among the philatelic rarities one can note an uncanceled blue 10-kopeck stamp of the USSR from 1925, which was sold for $18,500, an uncanceled USSR postage stamp with a portrait of Mendeleev from the issue “Scientists of our Motherland,” estimated at $11,500, as well as a vertical toothless coupling USSR stamps of 1937 in denominations of 40 and 50 kopecks from a series issued for the centenary of the death of Pushkin. Its price at auction was $9,500.
We also ask you to pay attention to your loved ones!
What do people collect in the modern world? One of the most popular areas of such activity - Many believe that this is the most harmless and cheap hobby. However, some are willing to pay a fortune for this or that rare stamp. What are the features of this type of collecting? What is the most expensive postage stamp of the USSR? All this is discussed in our article.
A postage stamp is a special sign that serves as confirmation of the fact of payment for the postal service and has its own. This tiny piece of paper with ribbed edges has become almost the meaning of life for many collectors.
In addition to the denomination, postage stamps often contain the number and name of a specific postal administration. Any stamp, as a rule, has a certain design, inscription and decor.
All postage stamps are divided into several types:
In Soviet times, many people were fond of collecting stamps. Even today, postal stamps remain a central object of interest for a number of philatelists. For many, this activity is a great way to feel nostalgic about the Soviet past.
Many philatelists begin to get involved in this activity from early childhood. First, they collect the most common postage stamps of the USSR, and then they begin to hunt for rarer specimens. Over time, in adulthood, such people already have at their disposal a substantial collection of various postage stamps.
The term “philately” itself comes from two Greek words: “philos” - “love” and “ately” - “collection, duty”.
It is worth noting that philatelists collect not only the stamps themselves, but also envelopes and postcards with postage stamps pasted on them. The first philatelic catalogs appeared in the middle of the 19th century, in England. In modern Russia there is the so-called Union of Philatelists. The country also regularly publishes a thematic magazine under the laconic name "Philately".
The most expensive postage stamp in the world is considered to be the so-called Mauritius stamp of 1847. The price of one such thing at auction reaches up to 20 million dollars! In total, 28 of its copies are known.
USSR postage stamps vary greatly in value. For example, the collection price of many Soviet postage stamps from late years of issue does not exceed 50 rubles. However, some of them cost several thousand dollars. And what is most surprising is that there are many who want to give such huge days for a small piece of paper.
On the Internet you can find many offers for the sale of entire sets of Soviet stamps. So, for example, a complete annual set of “postage stamps of the USSR 1974”, which includes 109 stamps and 8 blocks, can be purchased for 1,700 rubles. The price of such sets is largely determined by the year the stamps were issued. Thus, sets of stamps from the 40s and 50s are much more expensive.
Which USSR postage stamps are the most expensive today. We invite you to familiarize yourself with the list of five such items.
Postage stamps of the USSR are an object of interest for many modern philatelists. For some, collecting these stamps is nothing more than a harmless hobby. And someone devotes all their free time to this and is ready to pay a lot of money for a rare copy.
